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The Locus of Triangulation

This post attempts to collect in one place various belief systems, traditions, and theologies by name and description. As an open-ended post, it will be edited over time to add, delete, change, and format changes as they come about. The purpose is to set in place a personal record of who’s who of given theological and eschatological protestant beliefs. Individuals listed appear among the various systems are notable and historically of some significant contribution or influence to the widely distributed perspectives that are less than obvious.

This post is simply a component among others to map how individuals, churches, agencies, and institutions organize around historical interpretations of faith and a more coherent understanding of humanity’s existence and relationship with God and His creation. The numerous individuals listed as having a personal alignment are a matter of historical record. Within context to understand what systems and theologies fit together among persons with other adjacent beliefs and commitments that have a bearing on worldview, credibility, and truth or error.

Belief Systems

Title	Description	Personal Alignment
Arminianism [4]	A theological system based on the teachings of Dutch theologian Jacobus Arminius and his early followers, the Remonstrants. After Arminius’s death, the Remonstrants issued five articles summarizing their beliefs in opposition to Calvinists, who countered with the Canons of Dort, much later summarized by TULIP. While originally condemned as heretics by the Synod of Dort, the Remonstrants later obtained legal toleration in Holland, and many Protestants still adhere to Arminianism today. While it has many doctrines in common with Reformed theology, it differs significantly in its teaching on predestination, free will and atonement. The system follows Arminius’s original teachings that God’s election is conditional on his foreknowledge of human free choice, that God provides prevenient grace to everyone in order to enable people to choose faith in Jesus, and that believers are able to lose their salvation since they always have the free will to accept or reject Christ. Contemporary Arminianism includes a wide variety of viewpoints on key issues, like whether the governmental or penal-substitutionary atonement is more accurate. Arminians today also differ at times with Arminius’s own views, such as his support of infant baptism, which is now opposed by most Arminians.	Abraham, William J. Andrews, Herbert T. Basinger, David Basinger, Randall G. Carter, Charles W. Cottrell, Jack W. Craig, William L. Earle, Ralph Evans, C. Stephen Findlay, George G. Finney, Charles Forester, Roger T. Fritz, Guy Graham, Billy Headlan, Arthur Lewis, C. S. MacDonald, William G. Mantey, Julius R. Marshall, I. Howard Marston, V. Paul Melanchthan, Philip Miethe, Terry L. Miley, John Montgomery, John Warwick Osborne, Grant R. Pinnock, Clark Reichenbach, Bruce R. Rice, Richard Sanday, William Sanders, John E. Shank, Robert L. Simpson, Albert B. Taylor, Vincent Turner, George Allen Walls, Jerry L. Wesley, John Wiley, H. Orton
Calvinism [4]	As a synonym for the Reformed tradition, this term highlights the influence of John Calvin and his work in Geneva in shaping the movement. While Calvin did wield considerable influence, Calvinism is a complex tradition shaped in its early stages by many leaders, including Ulrich Zwingli, William Farel, Heinrich Bullinger, Martin Bucer, and John Knox. Calvin himself was interested in reconciling with Lutheranism, which shared similar concerns for sola scriptura, justification by faith, rejection of a corrupt and theologically errant papacy, and the marks of the true church. By the mid-sixteenth century, however, differences had solidified, and the Reformed or Calvinist perspective was demarcated by a commitment to the comprehensive sovereignty of God, a view of the Lord’s Supper distinct from Lutheranism, an emphasis on the positive third use of the law and a distinct practice of church polity. It is difficult to generalize, however, because as the theology and cultural system of Calvinism spread from Switzerland to France, the Netherlands, Scotland, Ireland, England, Hungary, and eventually North America, it continued to develop and adapt to particular localities, controversies, and personalities. The Canons of Dort were a benchmark for distinguishing the movement from Arminianism, although numerous confessions of faith had previously outlined Calvinist belief and practice. Consequently, while some identify TULIP as an accurate summary of the five points of Calvinism, these doctrines alone actually limit, and in some cases even caricature and misrepresent, the complexity and breadth of the tradition.	Adams, Jay Edward Alexander, J. A. St. Augustine Bavinck, Herman Beeke, Joel Berkhof, Hendrikus Bloesch, Donald Boetner, Loraine Boice, James Bridges, Jerry Buswell, J. O. Calvin, John Carson, Donald A. Dabney, Robert L. Dever, Mark Duncan, J. Ligon Edwards, Jonathan Ferguson, Sinclair Filson, Floyd Vivian Frame, John Hacket, Horacia Haldane, Robert Haykin, Michel Hendricksen, William Hodge, A. A. Hodge, Charles Horton, Michael Hughes, Philip Johnson, Phil Keller, Timothy Kik, Jaboc Marcellus Lawson, Steve Lecerf, Auguste Luther, Martin MacArthur, John Malone, Fred Marcel, Pierre Martin, Albert Mohler, Albert Moore, Thomas V. Moule, H.C.G. Murray, Andrew Murray, John Nicole, Roger Orr, James Packer, J. I. Pieters, Albertus Pipa, Joseph A. Piper, John Robertson, O. Palmer Rushdooney, R. J. Ryken, Philip Graham Ryle, J. C. Schaeffer, Francis Sproul, R. C. Steele, David N. Storms, C. Samuel Strombeck, J. F Strong, A. H. Thiessen, Henry Clarence Thomas, Curtis C. Van Til, Cornelius Ware, Bruce Warfield, B. B. Watson, Thomas Well, David White, James Whitney, Donald Wilson, Jeffrey B.
Molinism [5]	Molinism is a view of the relation between God’s grace and human free will, emanating from the Spanish Jesuit theologian Luis de Molina (1535–1600). Molina asserted that God has a special kind of foreknowledge of human free acts, which are the basis of God’s gracious gift of salvation. Molinism was widely adopted by Jesuits and opposed by Dominicans. After examination by a special congregation in Rome (1598–1607), both views were allowed in Catholic schools. According to Molinism, God has three kinds of knowledge: natural, middle, and free. 1.) Natural knowledge is God’s knowledge of all possible worlds. This knowledge is essential to God. It is concerned with the necessary and the possible. 2.) Free knowledge is God’s knowledge of this actual world. After a free act of his will, God knows these things absolutely, but such knowledge is not essential to God. 3.) Middle knowledge or scientia media is distinctive of Molinism. God cannot know future free acts in the way he knows other things. God knows some things absolutely, but future free acts are known only contingently. “God, from a most profound and inscrutable comprehension of every free will in His essence, has intuited what each, according to its innate liberty, would do if placed in this or that condition” (Garrigou-Lagrange, The One God, 460; see FREE WILL). Unlike natural knowledge, this middle or intermediate knowledge is in some sense dependent on what free creatures choose to do. God’s omniscience “waits” to see what a free creature does “before” he selects those who will be saved. Since God is eternal, the sequence is only logical, not chronological.	Craig, W.L. Molina, Luis de

Primary Theologies

Title	Description	Personal Alignment
Covenant Theology [6]	Also known as federal theology, this form of biblical theology focuses on the way God relates to his creatures through covenants—binding relationships between God and humanity involving mutual promises and responsibilities. In Reformed theology, this perspective traces back to Zwingli’s emphasis on God’s covenant with Abraham, which he used in defense of infant baptism. Bullinger wrote the first full Protestant treatise defending a unified biblical covenant, although Calvin similarly stressed the unity of God’s covenant of grace and continuities of law and gospel in both Testaments. The covenant theology of Johannes Cocceius, who built on the work of Calvin, Zacharias Ursinus, Caspar Olevianus and others, is important because of the distinctions he developed between an eternal covenant of redemption between Father and Son and two basic redemptive-historical covenants: the covenant of works and the covenant of grace. God established the covenant of works with Adam and Eve, promising life conditional on obedience, but after Adam and Eve’s disobedience, God established the covenant of grace as a promise to bring victory over the devil (Gen 3:15). This covenant is reiterated in various forms throughout redemptive history and culminates in the new covenant of Christ. Cocceius’s perspective was widely received by Reformed theologians and found expression in the Westminster Standards. Covenant theology continued to be a prominent theme in Reformed theology in contrast to dispensationalism, although significant debate emerged regarding the distinction between a covenant of works and a covenant of grace, which was rejected by Karl Barth and John Murray but accepted by others in the tradition.	Allis, O. T. Bass, Clarence B. Bear, James Berkof, Louis Carson, Herbert Cotton, John Fuller, Daniel Paxton Gerstner, John Goodwin, Thomas Hendricksen, William Hodge, A. A. Hodge, Charles Ladd, George Eldon Lincoln, C. Fred Mauro, Philip Murray, John Orr, James Owen, john Payne, J. Barton Poythress, Vern Robertson, O. Palmer Sproul, R. C. Van Gemeren, Willem Van Til, Cornelius
Dispensational Theology [7]	Dispensationalism, a periodization of human history into distinct time periods, or dispensations, during which God relates to humans in unique ways, was popularized in Darby’s frequent trips to America and contributed to the rise of fundamentalism. A theological system dividing the history of redemption into separate periods (dispensations) in which God relates to his people in unique ways, first developed by Englishman John Nelson Darby (1800–1882) and primarily popularized in the United States through the Scofield Reference Bible. Dispensationalism differs from covenant theology by identifying two separate peoples—Israel and the church—to whom God relates in distinct ways, thus introducing greater discontinuity into the biblical story than normally affirmed in the Reformed tradition. Given its wide-ranging influence, however, dispensationalism has been affirmed by some Reformed theologians, particularly in North America.	Barnhouse, Donald Grey Brooks, James H. Chafer, Lewis Sperry Darby, John Nelson English, E. Schuyler Feinberg, Charles L. Gaebelein, Arno C. Gaebelein, Frank Graves, J. R. Hoyt, Herman Ironside, H. A. Kelly, William MacArthur, John Mackintosh, C. H. Mason, Clarence E. Mayhue, Richard McClain, Alva J. Pache, Rene Pentecost, J. Dwight Pettingill, William Ryrie, Charles Sauer, Erich Scofield, C. I. Scroggie, W. Graham Walvoord, John F.
Ultra-Dispensational Theology [8] (Church began with Paul, not at Pentecost)	In modern times, the term dispensationalism is most often associated with nineteenth-century theologian John Nelson Darby, who was associated with the Plymouth Brethren Church in England. Darby’s key work, Synopsis, clearly delineated human history into well-defined time periods called dispensations. In each dispensation, God demands different expressions of faith from believers. In the dispensation of law, for example, the faithful were obedient to the Mosaic code, but this no longer applied after the death of Christ, when the dispensation of grace began. Later teachers, such as C. I. Scofield (1843–1921), expanded the number of dispensations to seven periods. Each dispensation ended in judgment, and only a few, a remnant, survive that testing to begin the next dispensation. Important to this view is the idea that Israel is distinct from the church and the promises and covenants made to Israel do not necessarily apply to modern-day believers.	Baker, Charles F. Berean Bible Society Bullinger, Ethelbert W. Gelesnoff, Vladimir Knoch, A.E. McGee, J. Vernon O’Hair, J.C. Sellers, Otis Q. Stam, Cornelius R. Welch, Charles H.

Secondary Theologies

Title	Description	Personal Alignment
Antinomianism [9]	A form of spiritual anarchy, which rejects the law as having any place in the Christian life, whether as instructor or as assessor. Paul’s teaching that Christians are free from the law is sometimes misunderstood as antinomian. But Paul reveres God’s law, and teaches believers, who are free from the law as a system of salvation, to keep it out of gratitude for salvation freely given, and because holiness, as defined by the law, is the Christian calling.	Agricola, Johannes Brearley, Roger Crisp, Tobias Eaton, John Hutchinson, Anne Saltmarsh, John, Traske, John Towne, Robert
Black Theology [10]	Derived from both traditional African-American religion and the historical process of liberation, Black Theology focuses on God in Christ as deliverer of oppressed people, and blackness as the key to understanding that deliverance.	Cleage, Jr., Albert B. Cone, James Roberts, Deotis
Charismatic Renewal [11] (Generally Arminian)	Neo-Pentecostalism – The classical Pentecostal movement usually traces its origin to New Year’s Day, 1901, when Agnes Ozman first spoke in tongues in Charles F. Parham’s Bible school in Topeka, Kansas. The movement that ensued was ridiculed by many outsiders as the religion of the economically deprived, the socially disinherited, the psychologically abnormal and the theologically aberrant. However, by the 1960s many sociological, psychological and theological theories had given way under the increasing evidence that Pentecostals were becoming middle class and educated. At the same time, their characteristic teachings were gaining acceptance among Christians within mainline Protestant denominations, as well as the Catholic Church. As the national media publicized this new movement, American Christians began to grapple with a phenomenon that would come to be known as the charismatic, or neo-Pentecostal, movement.	Benett, Dennis Braham, William Bredesen, Harald Christensen, Larry Coe, Jack duPlessis, David Harper, Michael C. Irwin, David Osborne, Tommy Lee Roberts, Oral Smith, Chuck (Calvary Chapel) Wilkerson, David
Creation Spirituality [12]	New Age Movement (NAM) – The NAM is both eclectic and syncretistic, drawing on sources as diverse as Vedantic Hinduism, assorted varieties of spiritism and avant garde theories in quantum physics. It is best viewed not as a unified denomination, sect, cult or conspiracy—although these factors are not lacking—but rather as a world view shifting away from both monotheism and atheistic materialism, and toward the “ancient wisdom” or “perennial philosophy” (A. Huxley) of various Eastern religions (e.g., Hinduism, Buddhism, Taoism, etc.), pre-Christian Western religions (e.g., Druidism), Christian heresies (Gnosticism, heterodox mysticism) and the occult (e.g., divination, magic, spiritism). In the 1980s the Dominican priest Matthew Fox was teaching what he called “Creation Spirituality” in books such as The Coming of the Cosmic Christ (1988) and through his Institute in Culture and Creation Spirituality. Clearly a proponent of the New Age perspective, in October 1988 Fox was ordered silenced by the Vatican’s Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith.	Matthew Fox (Catholic)
Feminist Theology [13]	Feminist theology has an unmistakable ideological slant (Colin Grant, “Feminist Theology Is Middle Class). It is patently tied to the women’s revolution in society, which insists on equal pay for equivalent work and presses for the liberation of women from male domination. God becomes the Empowering Matrix (Rosemary Ruether) that enables both men and women to realize their full potential as sons and daughters of a new age in which sexual differences are no longer a barrier to economic and political advancement as well as to spiritual leadership. The immanentalistic bent of feminist theology is tied to its reconception of God as the vital force within nature rather than as Sovereign King or Lord (Cf. Dorothee Sölle: “God is our capacity to love … the spark that animates our love.”). Feminist theology converges with process theology at many points, for both mirror the new wave of democratic egalitarianism that seeks to eradicate all hierarchy in human relationships.	Bilezikian, Gilbert Frymer-Kensky, Tikva Gundry, Patricia Hardesty, Nancy Jewett, Paul Mollenkott, Virginia Myers, Carol Ogden Bellis, Alice Scanzoni, Letha Spencer, Aida Bensancon Trible, Phyllis Williams, Dan
Liberation Theology [14]	The term “liberation theology” is attributed to the Latin American theologian Gustavo Gutierrez. In 1970, Gutierrez published A Theology of Liberation, in which he offers a theological perspective “from the underside of history” (Huebner, Introduction, 466). According to Thiselton, a liberation hermeneutic shares these common themes with feminist and womanist hermeneutics (Thiselton, New Horizons, 410): 1.) They critique frameworks of interpretation. 2. ) They offer alternative reinterpretations. 3.) They unmask the ways in which interpretations are used to serve the interests of those in power. Liberation theologies and hermeneutics find expression in critical scholarship, but more so among theologians in active, missional movements that derive their theology from an “ecclesial location,” such as Gutierrez who is known for theological reflections located in stories from his life among the poor (Gutierrez and Muller, On the Side). Juan Luis Segundo, a Uruguayan liberation theologian, suggests that the key to a “this-worldly” hermeneutic (and not an “other-worldly” one, meaning one that is practicable now) is the kingdom—preached, lived, and initiated by Jesus (Segundo, Grace, 73). Liberation theology and hermeneutics attempt to inform a kingdom of justice, which is often described as a spirituality that holds in tension divine transcendence and human action, gift and initiation (Segundo, Grace, 73).	Boff, Leonardo Gutierrez, Gustavo Miguez-Bonino, Jose
Lutheranism [15]	The theological and ecclesiastical tradition based on the teachings of Martin Luther (1483–1546), who is credited with launching the Reformation in Germany. Luther’s “tower experience” convinced him that the essence of the gospel is that justification comes only by the gift of God’s grace appropriated by faith (see sola gratia; sola fide). According to Luther, God declares the sinner righteous through Jesus’ death rather than through human merit or works. Faith entails trust in and acceptance of God’s gift of salvation through the “merits” of Christ.	Althaus, Paul Bornkamm, Heinrich Chemnitz, Martin Forde, Gerhard O. Gerhard, Johann Jensen, Robert Kolb, Robert Lohse, Bernhard Luther, Martin Maier, Paul L. Melanchthon, Philip Montgomery, John W. Pieper, Franz Preus, Robert Sasse, Hermann Veith, Gene Edward Walter, C. F. W. Wengert, Timothy
Mercersburg Theology [16]	Mercersburg Theology was a German-American theological movement that began in the mid-19th century. It draws its name from Mercersburg, Pennsylvania, home of Marshall College from 1836 until its merger with Franklin College (Lancaster, Pennsylvania) in 1853, and also home to the seminary of the Reformed Church in the United States (RCUS) from 1837 until its relocation to Lancaster in 1871. A significant aspect of the Mercersburg Theology is the view of history and theology found in Philip Schaff’s Principle of Protestantism. In this work, Schaff takes a Hegelian model of history and applies it to the history of theology. Theology must come to one final synthesis, as Schaff expressed in his remark that “the Reformation must be regarded as still incomplete. It needs yet its concluding act to unite what has fallen asunder, to bring the subjective to a reconciliation with the objective.”[4] By this, he proposes a reunion of the subjective doctrines of Protestantism with the objective character of the Roman Catholic Church. Thus, an outworking of this belief is a generous ecumenism extended toward all, especially toward Roman Catholics. The Mercersburg Society was founded in 1983 to maintain the sacramental and ecclesial approach of the theology.	Nevin, John Williamson Schaff, Philip
Liberal Theology [17] (Neo-Liberalism) (Existential Theology, Existentialism)	American liberal theologians in the early twentieth century emphasized Scripture as experience. Standing in the tradition of Friedrich Schleiermacher (1768–1834), Albrecht Ritschl (1822–1889) and Adolf von Harnack (1851–1930), these theologians sought to reconstruct traditional orthodoxy to meet the challenges of the modern world. They viewed the Bible as an ancient document written by fallible, human writers who were “religious geniuses.” These inspiring writers produced a literature that conveys religious experience to its readers as it brings them into contact with the great questions of human existence. Thus the liberal pulpiteer Harry Emerson Fosdick spoke of the Bible as presenting “abiding experiences and changing categories.” This means the basic human experiences of which the Bible speaks will be the same in any age, though expressed in various concepts and frameworks at different periods of history. Theologians must search out the abiding experiences that underlie biblical categories and express them in ways appropriate to the present times. For liberal theology, God is revealed in the events of history and especially in Jesus Christ. Humans may open themselves to this revelation and find the ring of truth in Scripture as biblical experiences coincide with their own religious experiences.	Bultmann, Rudolf (existential) Coffin, Henry S. Gilkey, Langdon Van Dusen, H.P Schleiermacher, Fredrich Fosdick, Harry E. Kierkegaard, Søren (existential) Ogden, Schuber Niebuhr, Reinhold (“post-liberal”) Tielhard de Chardin, Pierre Tillich, Paul (existential) Tracy, David (Catholic)
Neo-Orthodoxy [18]	The Swiss theologians Karl Barth and Emil Brunner are associated with neo-orthodox theology, a movement which characteristically speaks of Scripture as witness. Barth, reacting strongly to the liberal theology in which he was schooled, developed a dialectical theology that in its early stages stressed the great contrast and distance between the transcendent, holy God and finite, sinful humanity. In Jesus Christ, this gulf was bridged. Christ is God’s self-revelation so that to say revelation is to say the Word made flesh. Barth spoke of the threefold Word of God as the Word revealed (Jesus Christ), the Word written (Scripture) and the Word proclaimed (preaching). Scripture “becomes” God’s Word when, through its proclamation, it witnesses or points to the Word made flesh, Jesus Christ. The inspired writers of Scripture were witnesses to God’s revelation. Barth could speak of “verbal inspiration” in the sense that the witnesses to God’s revelation recorded their witness in words. But these were fallible words of humans, having “the capacity for errors,” yet nevertheless used by God to accomplish his own purposes. Scripture gains authority insofar as the Holy Spirit takes human witnesses and through their witness creates faith and obedience to Jesus Christ.	Barth, Karl Bonhoeffer, Dietrich Bunner, Emil
New Covenant Theology [19]	A position teaching that the person and work of Jesus Christ is the central focus of the Bible. One distinctive assertion of this school of thought is that Old Testament Laws have been abrogated or cancelled with Jesus’ crucifixion, and replaced with the Law of Christ of the New Covenant. It shares similarities with, and yet is distinct from, dispensationalism and Covenant theology.	Wells, Tom Zaspel, Fred Lehrer, Steve Reisinger, John
Pentecostalism [20]	Pentecostalism is a movement that began in the early twentieth century that emphasizes a post-conversion “baptism in the Holy Spirit” for all believers, with glossolalia (speaking in tongues) as the initial evidence of such baptism. Historically, Pentecostals have been missionary-minded people, due in part to the fact that the first Pentecostals taught that one central purpose of baptism in the Spirit was to endow the believer with power for evangelism.	Hayford, Jack Mason, Charles H. McPherson, Amy Semple
Pietism [21]	Pietism as it is now widely understood has its roots both in the magisterial and radical phases of the Reformation, as well as in the emphasis on “godliness” of many Puritans. It gradually comes into view in what is sometimes referred to as “precisianism” in the Reformed churches of the Netherlands. Among the Dutch Reformed it was represented by men like Willem Teellinck (1579–1629); the scholarly Gysbertus Voetius (1509–1676); Jadocus van Lodensteyn (1620–1677); as well as the Brakels—Theodor Gerardi (1608–1669) and his son Willem (1635–1711). Among separatists with a Dutch Reformed background, mention should be made of the former Jesuit Jean de Labadie (1610–1674) and his gifted disciple Anna Maria van Schurmann (1607–1678).	Arndt, Johann Francke, August Hermann Spener, Philipp Jakob Zinzerdorf, Count Von
Process Theology [22] (Panentheism)	Panentheism is not to be confused with pantheism. Pantheism literally means all (“pan”) is God (“theism”), but panentheism means “all in God.” It is also called process theology (since it views God as a changing Being), bipolar theism (since it believes God has two poles), organicism (since it views all that actually is as a gigantic organism), and neoclassical theism (because it believes God is finite and temporal, in contrast to classical theism).	Cobb, John B. Hartshorne, Charles Peters, Eugene H. Whitehead, Alfred North
Prosperity Theology [23]	Prosperity theology (sometimes referred to as the prosperity gospel, the health and wealth gospel, the gospel of success, or seed faith) is a religious belief among some Protestant Christians that financial blessing and physical well-being are always the will of God for them, and that faith, positive speech, and donations to religious causes will increase one’s material wealth. Prosperity theology views the Bible as a contract between God and humans: if humans have faith in God, he will deliver security and prosperity. The doctrine emphasizes the importance of personal empowerment, proposing that it is God’s will for his people to be blessed. The atonement (reconciliation with God) is interpreted to include the alleviation of sickness and poverty, which are viewed as curses to be broken by faith. This is believed to be achieved through donations of money, visualization, and positive confession.	Capps, Charles Cho, Paul Copeland, Kenneth Hayes, Narvelle Hagin, Kenneth Kenyon, Essek William Osteen, John Price, Frederick K. C. Savelle, Jerry
Puritanism [24]	A reform movement heavily influenced by Calvinism but initially part of the Church of England that had its zenith in the seventeenth century in England and North America. The stereotype of a Puritan as someone who is prudish and legalistic is quite misleading; Puritans enjoyed their beer and knew how to laugh. They were agents of cultural renewal in spheres as diverse as poetry and political philosophy, and they left a lasting imprint through the colonies founded in New England.	Ames, William Baxter, Richard Bolton, Robert Bridge, William, Brooks, Thomas Burroughes, Jeremiah Bunyan, John Charnock, Stephen Clarkson, David Cotton, John Flavel, John Goodwin, Thomas Gouge, William Hooker, Thomas Manton, Thomas Owen, John Perkins, William Rutherford, Samuel Shepard, Thomas Sibbes, Richard Swinnock, George Ussher, James Watson, Thomas
Scholasticism [25]	Through their intense study of the Bible and their preservation of ancient manuscripts, the monks did much to keep the spirit of learning alive during the Dark Ages. The cathedral and monastic schools were centers of study that served as seed beds for the later universities. Scholasticism refers both to the revival of learning that occurred during the Middle Ages and the method of study by which it occurred—the process of careful, rational scrutiny, logical deduction, and the systematic ordering of truth.	Abelard, Peter Anselm Aquinas, Thomas Bonaventure Ockham, William of
Secular Theology [26] (“God is Dead”)	Secular theology rejects the substance dualism of modern religion, the belief in two forms of reality required by the belief in heaven, hell, and the afterlife. Secular theology can accommodate a belief in God—as many nature religions do—but as residing in this world and not separately from it. Historians such as Charles Freeman hold that the AD 325 Council of Nicaea did much to establish dualism in Christian thought. Dualism has greatly influenced not only religion but science as well. By desacralizing the natural world, dualism has left it vulnerable to exploitation and damage. The field of secular theology, a subfield of liberal theology advocated by Anglican bishop John A. T. Robinson somewhat paradoxically combines secularism and theology. Recognized in the 1960s, it was influenced both by neo-orthodoxy, Dietrich Bonhoeffer, Harvey Cox, and the existentialism of Søren Kierkegaard and Paul Tillich. Secular theology digested modern movements like the Death of God Theology propagated by Thomas J. J. Altizer or the philosophical existentialism of Paul Tillich and eased the introduction of such ideas into the theological mainstream and made constructive evaluations, as well as contributions, to them.	Altizer, Thomas Cox, Harvey Hamilton, William Robinson, John A. T. Rubenstein, Richard L. (Jewish Rabbi) Vahanian, Gabriel
Social Gospel [27] (Liberal Theology, Liberalism)	The Social Gospel was a social movement within Protestantism that applied Christian ethics to social problems, especially issues of social justice such as economic inequality, poverty, alcoholism, crime, racial tensions, slums, unclean environment, child labor, lack of unionization, poor schools, and the dangers of war. It was most prominent in the early-20th-century United States and Canada. Theologically, the Social Gospelers sought to put into practice the Lord’s Prayer (Matthew 6:10): “Thy kingdom come, Thy will be done on earth as it is in heaven”. They typically were postmillennialist; that is, they believed the Second Coming could not happen until humankind rid itself of social evils by human effort. The Social Gospel was more popular among clergy than laity. Its leaders were predominantly associated with the liberal wing of the progressive movement, and most were theologically liberal, although a few were also conservative when it came to their views on social issues. Important leaders included Richard T. Ely, Josiah Strong, Washington Gladden, and Walter Rauschenbusch.	Ely, Richard T. Gladden, Washington Rauschenbusch, Walter
Third Wave Movement [28]	Although Wagner has been influential in the wider evangelical world, his extensive research into and writing on the Pentecostal and charismatic movements have given him particular expertise in these areas. Through his longtime association with the charismatic leader John Wimber, leader of the Vineyard Movement, and their joint teaching of a controversial course on charismatic ministry at Fuller Theological Seminary entitled, ‘MC 510 Signs and Wonders’ (1984), he became identified with the charismatic movement. He is credited with originating the term ‘third wave’, to designate the increased openness among other evangelicals to the miraculous power of the Holy Spirit and joint ministry with Pentecostals and charismatics.	Wagner, C. Peter Wimber, John
Wesleyan Theology {Wesleyan Quadrilateral)	The various groups and churches associated with, spawned by, or that look for their genesis in John Wesley (the founder of Methodism) and his theology. These include the various Methodist churches, the Holiness Movement and Pentecostalism. Wesley’s theology attempted to balance the doctrine of justification by faith with an emphasis on the Spirit’s ongoing process of sanctification in the life of the believer. Wesleyans are often known for certain doctrines, including entire sanctification and the second blessing. Wesleyans tend to be Arminian as opposed to Calvinist in their understanding of the dynamic of personal salvation. The four “sources” on which Wesleyan theology is often constructed and defended: Scripture, reason, tradition and experience. There is some debate today as to whether the Wesleyan quadrilateral actually dates to Wesley himself, although there is general agreement that it does represent Wesley’s own theological approach.	Allen, Richard Asbury, Francis Coke, Albert C. Varick, James Wesley, Charles Wesley, John

Eschatological Systems

Derived from the combination of the Greek eschatos, meaning “last,” and logos, meaning “word” or “significance.” Refers to the biblical doctrine of last things. The doctrine of last things normally focuses on a discussion of the return of Christ at the end of the age, the coming judgments, various expressions of the kingdom of heaven and the kingdom of God, the nature of the glorified body, and the prospects for eternal destiny. Generally, eschatology sets itself apart as a theology of the future and in juxtaposition to both history and the present age.[1]

Millennialism

This expression, taken from Latin words, means 1,000 years. The Bible passage that mentions the “thousand years” is Rev. 20:1–7, where the word appears six times. The Latin Vulgate uses mille anni and its variant renderings to translate the Greek chilia ete. Various theological proposals have been offered to explain this passage from Rev. 20 as well as various other Scriptures that might be taken to speak to the same issue. One’s view on this text will be determined by one’s approach to interpreting predictive prophecy and by one’s view on symbolic and apocalyptic language.[1]

Title	Description	Typical Association	Personal Alignment
Amillennialism [2]	The belief that the thousand years mentioned in Revelation 20 do not represent a specific period of time between Christ’s first and second comings. Many amillennialists believe instead that the millennium refers to the heavenly reign of Christ and the departed saints during the Church Age. Amillennialists usually understand Revelation 20 to mean that the return of Christ will occur at the end of history and that the church presently lives in the final era of history.	Amillennials usually commit to Covenant theology	Adams, Jay Edward Allis, Oswald T. Augustine Bass, Clarence B. Beckwith, Isbon T. Bennett, T. Miles Berkof, Louis Berkouwer, G. C. Bowman, John Wick Brown, David Calvin, John Charles, Robert H. Colclasure, Chuck Ellison, Henry L. Farrar, Fredric W. Ferguson, Sinclair Foster, Richard J. Gerstner, John Gifford, Edwin H. Hamilton, Floyd E. Hendricksen, William Hoekema, Anthony A. Hoeksema, Herman Kik, Jacob Marcellus Laetsch, Theodore F. K. Lenski, Richard Leopold, Herbert C. Luther, Martin Machen, John Gresham Mauro, Philip Morgan, George Campbell Morris, Leon Pink, A. W. Pusey, Edward B. Ridderbos, Herman Riddlebarger, Kim Sproul, R.C. Summers, Ray Swete, Hanry Barclay Van Til, Cornelius Vos, Gerhardus Waltke, Bruce Warfield, B. B. Young, Edward J
Premillennialism [2]	The view that the millennium follows the return of Christ, which therefore makes his return “premillennial.” In the teaching of some premillennialists, the millennium will begin supernaturally and cataclysmically, preceded by signs of apostasy, worldwide preaching of the gospel, war, famine, earthquakes, the coming of the antichrist, and the great tribulation. Jesus will then return and rule on the earth with his saints for one thousand years, during which time peace will reign, the natural world will no longer be cursed and evil will be suppressed. After a final rebellion, God will crush evil forever; judge the resurrected, nonbelieving dead; and establish heaven and hell.	Historic premillennialists usually commit to Covenant Theology, with post-tribulation eschatology. Dispensational premillennial is generally pre-tribulation.	Alford, Henry Amerding, C. A. Anderson, Robert Beasley-Murray, G. R. Bengel, _ Blackstone, William E. Bonar, A.A. Bowman, John (Historic) Chafer, Lewis Sperry Culver, Robert D. Darby, John Nelson DeHaan, Martin R. Ellicott, C.J. English, Eugene Schuyler Erickson, Millard (Historic) Fausset, A. R. Feinberg, Charles L. Fuller, Daniel Payton (Historic) Gaebelein, A. C. Gill, John Goodwin, Thomas Grudem, Wayne Hiebert, Davis Edmond Hoyt, Herman A. (Disp.) Ironside, H. A. Jennins, Frederick C. Jeremiah, David Keach, Benjamin Kromminga, D. H. Ladd, George E. (Historic) Lange, John Lightfoot, J.B. Lillie, (John?) Luck, G. Coleman MacArthur, John MacIntosh, C.H. Mauro, Philip (Historic) Mayhue, Richard McClain, Alva (Disp.) Meyer, F.B. Morgan, George Campbel Mounce, Robert Newell, William Reed Ottman, Ford C. Payne, J. Barton (Historic) Piper, John Ross, James Robert (Historic) Ryle, J.C. Ryrie, Charles (Disp.) Seiss, Joseph A. Smith, Jacob B. Smith, Wilbur M. Steir. _ Stevens, W. C. Stifler, James M. Strombeck, J. F. Tatford, Frederick A. Tenney, Merrill C. Tregelles, Samuel P. Unger, Merril Walvoord, John (Disp.) Westcott, B.F. Wiley, H. Orton
Postmillennialism [2]	The view that Christ’s second coming will follow the millennium; that is, his return is postmillennial. Postmillennialists assert that the millennium will come by the spiritual and moral influence of Christian preaching and teaching in the world. This will result in increased conversions, a more important role of the church in the world, earthly prosperity, the resolution of social ills and a general adoption of Christian values. Evil will diminish until the time of Christ’s second coming, which will mark as well the resurrection of the dead and the last judgment.		Alexander, Archibald Alexander, Joseph A. Barnes, Albert Boettner, Loraine Brown, David Dabney, R. L. Dabney, Robert T. Edward, Jonathan Fairbairn, Patrick Hodge, A. A. Hodge, Charles Marcellus, K. K. J. Murray, John North, Gary Shedd, W. G. T. Snowden, James H. Strong, Augustus H. Warfield, Benjamin B

Rapture

God’s taking the church out of the world instantaneously. The Latin term rapio, which means to “snatch away” or “carry off,” is the source of the English word. While there are differing views of the millennium (Rev. 20:2–7) in relation to Christ’s second coming (e.g., premillennial, postmillennial, and amillennial), nevertheless, all evangelicals affirm a literal return of Christ to the earth preceding the eternal state. In premillennialism, however, the distinct event of the rapture is often emphasized.

The main biblical passage for the rapture (Gk. harpazo) of the church is 1 Thess. 4:15–17. Other texts often used to support the doctrine of the rapture are John 14:1–3 and 1 Cor. 15:51–52. There are three main approaches to understanding the rapture in premillennialism:

Title	Description	Personal Alignment
Pre-Tribulational [3]	In the pretribulational view, Christ raptures the church before any part of the seven-year tribulation begins (Dan. 9:24–27; Matt. 24:3–28; Rev. 11:2; 12:14). Upon Christ’s coming in the air, which is distinct from and that precedes His coming to the earth, believers will be “caught up together … in the clouds to meet the Lord in the air” (1 Thess. 4:17). In this view, believers are delivered “from the coming wrath” (1 Thess. 1:10; Rev. 3:10) by being taken out of the world.	Harrison, Norman B. Hogg, Charles F. Stanton, Gerald B. Theissen, Henry C. Vine, Howard Frederick
Mid-Tribulational [3]	A midtribulational view also sees the rapture as a distinct event that precedes Christ’s second coming and delivers believers from the last half of the seven-year period, the “great tribulation” (Matt. 24:15–28; Rev. 16–18).	Peters, George N. H.
Post-Tribulational [3]	A posttribulational view holds that the rapture and the second coming occur at the same time. Therefore, the church remains on earth during “the time of Jacob’s distress” (Jer. 30:7 NASB). Unlike the world, however, believers who go through the tribulation will be protected from the devastating outpouring of God’s wrath and judgment (1 Thess. 5:9).	Erickson, Millard Ladd, G. E. Lang, George H. Tenney, Merrill C.

Citations

[1] Doros Zachariades, “Millennium,” ed. Chad Brand et al., Holman Illustrated Bible Dictionary (Nashville, TN: Holman Bible Publishers, 2003), 1127.
[2] Stanley Grenz, David Guretzki, and Cherith Fee Nordling, Pocket Dictionary of Theological Terms (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1999), 8–9.
[3] Pete Schemm, “Rapture,” ed. Chad Brand et al., Holman Illustrated Bible Dictionary (Nashville, TN: Holman Bible Publishers, 2003), 1366.
[4] Kelly M. Kapic and Wesley Vander Lugt, Pocket Dictionary of the Reformed Tradition, The IVP Pocket Reference Series (Downers Grove, IL: IVP Academic, 2013), 29–30.
[5] Norman L. Geisler, “Molinism,” Baker Encyclopedia of Christian Apologetics, Baker Reference Library (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books, 1999), 493.
[6] Kelly M. Kapic and Wesley Vander Lugt, Pocket Dictionary of the Reformed Tradition, The IVP Pocket Reference Series (Downers Grove, IL: IVP Academic, 2013), 38–39.
[7] Ibid, 41.
[8] Nathan P. Feldmeth, Pocket Dictionary of Church History: Over 300 Terms Clearly and Concisely Defined, The IVP Pocket Reference Series (Downers Grove, IL: IVP Academic, 2008), 52–53.
[9] Martin H. Manser, Dictionary of Bible Themes: The Accessible and Comprehensive Tool for Topical Studies (London: Martin Manser, 2009).
[10] Daniel G. Reid et al., Dictionary of Christianity in America (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1990).
[11] Ibid.
[12] Ibid.
[13] Donald G. Bloesch, Freedom for Obedience: Evangelical Ethics in Contemporary Times (Eugene, OR: Wipf and Stock Publishers, 2002), 266–267.
[14] Carrie Sinclair Wolcott, “Liberation Theologies and Hermeneutics,” ed. John D. Barry et al., The Lexham Bible Dictionary (Bellingham, WA: Lexham Press, 2016).
[15] Stanley Grenz, David Guretzki, and Cherith Fee Nordling, Pocket Dictionary of Theological Terms (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1999), 74.
[16] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercersburg_theology
[17] Daniel G. Reid et al., Dictionary of Christianity in America (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1990).
[18] Ibid.
[19] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Covenant_theology
[20] Stanley Grenz, David Guretzki, and Cherith Fee Nordling, Pocket Dictionary of Theological Terms (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1999), 90.
[21] Daniel G. Reid et al., Dictionary of Christianity in America (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1990).
[22] Norman L. Geisler, “Panentheism,” Baker Encyclopedia of Christian Apologetics, Baker Reference Library (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books, 1999), 576.
[23] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prosperity_theology
[24] C. Stephen Evans, Pocket Dictionary of Apologetics & Philosophy of Religion (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2002), 98.
[25] David S. Dockery, ed., Holman Bible Handbook (Nashville, TN: Holman Bible Publishers, 1992), 865.
[26] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secular_theology
[27] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_Gospel
[28] D. Hedges, “Wagner, Charles Peter,” ed. Timothy Larsen et al., Biographical Dictionary of Evangelicals (Leicester, England; Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2003), 691.
[29] Stanley Grenz, David Guretzki, and Cherith Fee Nordling, Pocket Dictionary of Theological Terms (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1999), 120–121.

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The State of Perdition

By James Austin in Theology

Historically, Christian Realism centers around the brothers Richard Niebuhr (1894-1962) and Reinhold Niebuhr (1892-1971), who both were immersed in 20th-Century theology as influential thinkers of their time. They were both American Realists and were primarily concerned with human nature and human history. Their epistemological concerns were largely driven by individual and social conditions that they believed had explanatory power about the Christian faith. Their contributions to theological discourse were largely situated upon the doctrine of man and the human condition, especially as it concerns the life of faith from the perspective of Liberal theology.

James C. Livingston, the author of the text, refers to Niebuhr as a “post-liberal“ theologian as his exposure and acceptance to Barthian neo-orthodox theology is of coherent influence, but as one traces Niebuhrs’ life’s work, his writing, speaking, collaborative efforts, and criticisms, it is easy to dismiss the proposition as “post-liberal.” The functional name of “Christian Realism” is simply a rebranding of a social gospel (i.e., justice as the only proper outworking of agape love) that seeks to make use of the historical and eternal work of Christ for purposes of attaining distributed human power through social acquiescence or upheaval. It seeks to weaponize theology through social means as it concentrates on the human condition at the expense of sovereign, supernatural, limitless purposes of God. More specifically, in the here and now, it exchanges the pursuit of God for the pursuit of utopia by social means. Instead, biblical justice is simply an important and necessary component of deep and enduring theological interest. Instead of the default social pragmatism of Christian Realists, the practical imperatives of God through Christ are revealed in history to function as a pressing necessity for Godly living. A type of living that serves as a foundation for doctrine and confessional commitments that shape attitudes, conduct, disciplines, worship, devotion, and outreach. Charity, missional work, shelters, poverty relief, disaster recovery, hospitality, and economic justice are merely components of outreach and permanent support that extends from the proper application of the New Covenant.

As Livingston refers to the “social gospel,” it is normally attributed to Christian Realism. A person of liberal social interest would normally conclude there is a universal meaning associated with the term gospel. Aside from God’s redemptive work through Christ, the gospel takes on a useful purpose to achieve social objectives. Rather than for the purpose of saving individuals, and society, from real justice as eternal condemnation and separation from God in a permanent punishment of Hell. The meaning of “gospel” is reserved explicitly for a specific purpose as articulated in Scripture and the Greek semantic range found in BDAG and elsewhere. There is no “social gospel,” or “American gospel,” or “European gospel,” or “individual gospel,” as such. There is the “gospel” without descriptive adjectives to redefine its meaning. As clearly expressed in Scripture, the gospel is the saving work of Christ from personal sin against God (whether through idolatry, biblical injustice, social neglect, and various other covenant violations).

The meaning and background of Christian Realism set the terms of faith in God as relative to social interests. Specifically, where theology cannot describe God as such but only through human language and experience (Livingston, 169) to set the conditions by which people understand what traditions, practices, and lifestyles should be lived out. This indicates that divine revelation was purely codependent upon people without observation in Creation, direct encounter, Holy Spirit testimony, historical facts, archaeological discoveries, ancient literature, and means of communication other than immediate verbal or written interaction. Not to dismiss the purpose and intent of spoken and written communication among those who experience shared faith (such as at Pentecost), but to place proper and necessary emphasis upon revelation through absolute primary means. Where reason, language, culture, tradition, etc., are entirely subordinate to revelation with various weights of relevance.

Among the numerous explanatory positions Richard Niebuhr wrote, the Livingston text does not present Niebuhr as using scripture as a source of rationale to form substantive arguments to support his views. Philosophical consideration in support of a coherent and persuasive understanding of divine revelation toward Christian Realism would produce a lot of traction. He otherwise acknowledges the necessity of revelation to become informed of theological truth, and especially as interpreted among peers, but Niebuhr’s verbiage is a word salad of articulation that goes from revelation to knowledge, to experience, to reason, and back again to knowledge, experience, and reason as the whole endeavor is progressive for a desired or suitable outcome.

Reinhold Niebuhr viewed himself as a social critic and moralist. He also held to Liberal theology and attracted a lot of criticism from Protestants who were doctrinally grounded as his concern with justice was the embodiment of love (according to Livingston). Reinhold’s perspective concerning liberal theology revolved around love, justice, and power. Livingston’s interpretation of Reinhold’s views was that the failure to acquire and use power for the common good in one’s interests (Livingston, 189) was a persistent human sin. It was a failure to recognize one’s own will to power, as it was otherwise left to another group or class where injustice would be certain to arise from a secular or Christian source. Power, or equilibrium of it, was to be the objective, for the stated ideal of “love of neighbor.” More specifically, not through the Kingdom with its prescribed methodology by revelation or Scripture, but to achieve a systemic love-of-neighbor through the State, or socialism through the Church if need be. This is Liberal theology. Reinhold is noted for his changed thinking toward neo-orthodoxy later in life. Still, he did not develop a robust and coherent theology that was a source of reliable thought and influence among Protestants in the 20th century. Reinhold Niebuhr was a professor and Union Theological Seminary (liberal theology). He significantly influenced progressive political leaders such as Carter, Albright, Clinton, Obama, Comey, and others along the progressive-socialist spectrum.

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Dialectical Thought & Paradox

By James Austin in Theology

With the emergence and development of Dialectical theology, it is apparent that early German Reformers and Liberal theologians had a lasting and permanent influence upon 20th-century theology. The chapter stretches across the time of socialist thought around theological meaning at a time it underwent a remarkable change for the better. The cultural degradation of society marked the inferior theology of liberalism and social doctrines as it sought meaning in the absence of God and His divine revelation through His inspired Word.

At the forefront of the Dialectical Theology movement was Karl Barth (1886-1968). He was a German Reformed Protestant Theologian who opposed the Nazi’s National Socialist movement in his native Deutschland. He was the most influential theologian of the twentieth century. His notoriety began with an encounter of betrayal as he observed 93 German intellectuals and his teachers as signatories of the Nazi war policy of Kaiser Wilhelm and Chancellor Bethmann-Hollweg. Barth stood up for Jews and other oppressed people while he viewed the compromise of his leaders as an ethical failure. He had concluded that 19th-century German theology was gone and of no further interest, so he set about to develop a “Theology of Crisis,” which is also understood as “Theology of the Word of God.” Both titles were correlated to the name and meaning of Dialectical Theology.

After the onset of the First World War in 1914, Barth found himself at the head of a theological revolution with the formation of a Dialectical Theology program with fellow contemporaries. The national socialist policy had a lasting and devastating impact on him, and the credibility of his theological leadership was lost. In the 1920s, Barth organized and led a group of young theologians as he counted his leadership within liberal socialist theology of Herrmann, Weiss, Troeltsch, and Schleiermacher as completely corrupted. Barth remained adherent to the Socialist Democrat Party while developing a new theology as the Bible came alive to him during a period of rediscovery of Scripture as divine revelation. While he functioned as a pastor and head of Reformed theology at Gottingen (1921), his continued progression toward opposition of the German National Socialist movement led to his exile. Eventually, he taught theology at the University of Basel, Switzerland, until retirement. Barth’s developed theology led to his rejection of socialism and its inherent effect of oppression upon people and economic injustices.

Within the formation of Dialectical theology, the notion of “Wholly Other” originated from Barth and was positioned among those who recognized a dire need for theological revolution. The biblical revelation of God as wholly other moved Barth to cast a different sort of reality less favorable to socialistic ideals. Moreover, entrenched social theologians who objected to Barth’s views about divine revelation through the “Word of God” spared no criticism. Barth’s detractors were numerous and persistent while sympathy and interest in Dialectical theology grew. “Crisis Theology” introduced doubts about subjectivism and the corresponding personal religious experience advocated by Schleiermacher while students, peers, and younger theologians demonstrated a loss of confidence in culture and state religion.

As a matter of course, a new generation of dialectical and liberal theologians arose to counter one another. They were divided on a number of subjects, but of critical interest was faith and modern historical consciousness. To the liberal theologians, it was important to understand the historical Jesus as it was necessary for faith in Christ. Advocates for theological historicism extended their rationale that knowledge of God, including moral and religious principles, definitively appears through relationships within biblical history. Rather from God as the source of divinely inspired revelation.

Friedrich Gogarten (1887-1967), a co-founder of dialectical theology, was a defender of Barth’s work while against the historicism of liberal theologian Ernst Wilhelm Troeltsch (1865-1923) of the German Democratic Party. As Livingston uses painstaking and extraordinarily elaborate prose to describe the dispute between Gogarten and Troeltsch’s views about the passage of time and God’s use of it, it becomes clear that the liberal and social theologians’ Jesus is a product of history and His place within the unfolding of time is requisite to knowing Him (i.e., as a counter to divine revelation through Scripture where Christ is within history). God instantiates and uses events and the passage of time to telegraph theological messaging as He is situated within it as the person of Christ. Still, He is wholly other or transcendent from creation to include time itself.

The crux of the dispute between Gogarten and Troeltsch appeared as the difference between the relative and absolute passage of time. Where, to Troeltsch’s view, the relationship between history and revelation of God was somehow mutually exclusive. As Troeltsch’s frame of reference was squared upon a social and subjective worldview, God’s work and existence in Christ had to be within the parameters of time and place where people were set in history. To understand their relationships with one another and with God was to become informed about how God provided theological truth. Whereas to Gogarten and Barth, the testimony and witness of Scripture revealed theological truth within history to situate absolute events and passage of time as prescribed for necessary outcomes (i.e., theological truth by divine revelation). “The ‘historical Jesus’ reconstructed from the records is not identical to revelation, to the act of God, which cannot be directly perceived in history” (Livingston, 71).

The Dialectical Method is a third way between dogmatism and mysticism or liberalism and orthodoxy. It doesn’t propose immediate solutions, but it leads to better-formed questions and a more coherent premise of thought around what God reveals about Himself. The wholly other God as present within our existence of space and time is revealed in a limited way through Christ, Creation, and Scripture. Yet, an inner and direct understanding of God is unattainable while in this plane of existence, and He cannot be fully known within this finite realm. To adopt the dialectical method is to embrace paradoxical expressions and works of God and what becomes comprehensible to us by His revelation.

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Circus of the Centuries

By James Austin in Theology

The developments of evangelicalism from its fundamentalist roots in contrast to liberal and Catholic forms of religious tradition read as contentious and challenging. By denominational identity of historical, traditional, and theological commitments, it appears that individuals and groups situated themselves as counter positional to the preferences or convictions of people and entities who did not share a common interest or unity in Protestantism. The propagation of evangelical thought appeared in a continuous search for stability and coherence with fragmented organizations of influence and stature.

Through the historical development of evangelical theology or evangelicalism, the formation of the Kingdom to involve discipleship, the gospel, missions do not appear to elevate these as imperative matters of course from Christ across generations and cultures. The history of evangelical theology suggests such pursuits were merely incidental or adjacent to defense against liberalism and anti-intellectualism. The ever-present pressures of modernism and liberalism have taken a toll on the growth and development of Protestant interests. To such an extent that they had a leavening effect upon the Church. Especially from early institutions such as Princeton Theological Seminary and Fuller Theological Seminary, among others (Union, Vanderbilt, etc.).

Reactions from the Presbyterian General Assembly sought to establish pillars of unity around essential beliefs to include five fundamentals that countered theological Liberalism and Modernism. These convictions were centered and interrelated around the gospel, but their stated purpose read like an abbreviated form of confession to stave off theological dilution. It opened the door to a type of Walmart Christianity that brought about stigma and derision among unbelievers within Western culture. While fundamentalists sought to defend against Liberal Christianity, they instead achieved forms of isolation and separation of culture from society at large. The efforts of fundamentalists had an insulative effect as it withered in decline until it took on a new identity by the use of the respectable term “evangelical.”

Evangelicalism represented the transformation of fundamentalism as it valued academic scholarship, reformed tradition, confessional loyalty, and intellectual theologians to build a rightful and necessary stature around doctrine and revealed truth. Notably to gain its footing upon grounded theology as a formidable defense that took shape in the form of apologetic and eristic disciplines while making use of the sciences, philosophy, logic, and human reason to support its cause. Evangelicalism served as a reset from earlier fundamentalism that was repugnant to Western society. That is, it wasn’t an accommodation or capitulation to Liberal theological thought but a growing answer to its growth, influences, and pressures within the Church and academic institutions.

Conservative theologians of a Reformed heritage became further engaged within the Protestant Church and academic institutions to again bring scholarship as a grounded set of disciplines around doctrines, dogmatics, and a coherent repudiation of anti-intellectualism. Moreover, some had ecumenical aspirations to build limited solidarity around meaningful theological thought against Liberalism and Socialist Theology. As cases on point, Emil Brunner (1889-1966) regularly reached out to Catholic and Interdenominational organizations, while Carl F.H. Henry (1913-2003) founded the Institute for Advanced Christian Studies. Notably, while various other enterprises stood against earlier fundamentalist perspectives, further advancements were made in Europe with the growth of Neo-Orthodoxy from leaders Karl Barth, Rudolf Bultmann, and Emil Brunner.

There were tensions between rationalist reformed theologians like Carl Henry and formative leaders of neo-orthodoxy. Adherents to traditional confessional heritage were at odds with the Enlightenment’s challenges to theological methodologies. While more developed Protestant orthodoxy from the theology of Karl Barth and others was at odds also, it was best able to come to terms with the Enlightenment and more effectively assert Christian rationale and doctrines. The direction of theological discourse took a turn for the better. New and innovative methodologies emerged from the Bible and proper interpretation as supported by divine revelation with more meaningful presuppositional criteria, historicity, and compelling traditions.

The new theological trajectory of the 20th century was cast forward from fundamentalism by key influential figures. While Cornelius Van Til, E.J. Carnell, and Carl Henry stood in opposition to a new modern theology of Barth and other Neo-Orthodox theologians, it was C.G. Berkouwer and Bernard Ramm who called attention to the need for an answer to the Enlightenment (i.e., Immanuel Kant, Francis Bacon, and others). Consequently, the appeal of Barth’s neo-orthodox theology gained strength to adapt to changing social conditions brought about by more advanced philosophical thought.

Clark Pinnock (1937–2010), a Canadian theologian, sought to define the essence and identity of Christianity through narrative theology that involved community traditions like creeds, liturgies, hymns, prayers, and various actions unique to the faith. His efforts appealed to human interest in Christianity as a whole, where no single individual had the right to change its traditions. His perspective focused upon human benefit, the practice of worship, and the use of Scripture for the betterment and consumption of people. The idea of narrative theology to Pinnock was primarily a “Christian story” and secondarily a God-centered form of understanding through revelation. Pinnock emphasized the humanness of Scripture and the work of the Holy Spirit within it as he questioned the doctrine of inerrancy and aligned with the Pentecostal tradition of the Church. He sought to dissuade against the inspiration and illumination of Scripture but directed attention to the work of the Holy Spirit within people.

According to Livingston, some additional postmodern thinkers centered themselves on social and individualistic interest around tradition for religious meaning and truth within the greater evangelical sphere. They centered themselves around a contextual view of doctrine due to historical and cultural conditions that prevailed over time. Clark Pinnock and Stanley Grenz gave more weight to social interests concerning theological truth than to what divine revelation specifies about new covenant obligations, the life of faith, discipleship, and the gospel. It is highly suspect that this form of evangelical theology contributed to the rise of the social gospel and the enormous growth of “exvangelicals” in recent years. The expected course of liberal theology empties the use of divine revelation and its historical presence. It de-values the meaning and weight of redemptive intervention with the necessary truth claims made through Scripture. It helps explain trends toward individuals deconstructed from their faith where apostasy is on the increase, church attendance is significantly reduced, and evangelical theology is set on a trajectory of dissolution. Until Protestant interests return to the principles of Christ-centered theology, rather than the Wesleyan “quadrilateral” (i.e., Scripture, tradition, experience, reason), it has nowhere to go but inward while fraught by contradiction and confusion.

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The Authority of Self-Witness

By James Austin in Theology

My reading this week made a connection between the method of interpretation and the authority of Scripture. The reason why some choose “reader response” as a hermeneutical method of scripture rather than “authorial intent” is because they do not want the authority of God’s Word on its divinely inspired terms. They want the meaning of scripture in human terms to suit personal interests.

Two Methods of Interpretation:

1. Reader Response (wrong & dangerous)
2. Authorial Intent (right & productive)

Reader response is reading the Bible to suit what you want it to say and mean. Authorial intent rests upon what the Biblical authors intended by the Spirit in terms of meaning and principles (patriarchs, kings, sages, prophets, apostles, etc.). The tension is reminiscent of making something “in your own image” vs. accepting scripture as God’s revealed and authoritative word. Even further, the Bible is authoritative only to the extent people agree with it (i.e., it is not authoritative to those engaged in Reader Response).

Key gems in our reading distill these assembled facts: Those who refuse to acknowledge the Bible’s authority will not experience spiritual transformation by the Spirit and the Word. The Bible inherently possesses authority regardless of whether or not the church or individual recognizes it. The ontological ground of the text’s authority is not the same as the epistemic acceptance of the text’s authority. God’s act of inspiration grounds the Bible’s status as God’s revelation. God speaks through the Word whether people recognize or accept its authority or not and it is for this reason that contemporary agendas will never gain control over theology.

The weight of authority comes from a source of authority by revelation as God’s self-witness (e.g., fulfillment of prophecy, miracles, promises, judgments, etc.). This stands as warranted belief in the face of a multitude of defeater claims.

There is a difference between “what it meant” and “what it means.” “What it meant” leads to “what it means” as a matter of coherent principle where implications follow the intent and not what a reader surmises. Especially to form preferred outcomes according to biases stemming from cultural contexts. Moreover, it is possible to treasure biblical principles more than the Bible itself.

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Structures of Poetic Resonance

By James Austin in Theology

There are numerous meta-details around the poetry of Scripture, especially throughout the Psalms. An analysis of facts and details around the structure and background of poetry from a historical, theological, and literary perspective offers a deeper and more comprehensive view of ancient biblical literature and worship.

Themes of Psalms

A. The Sovereign God

The God of Creation (Ps 33, 74, 89, 95, 104, 135, 136, 147, 148)
The God of Israel (Ps 105, 106)
The God of the Nations (Ps 33)
The God who will establish His Rule upon the Earth

B. The People of God – the Righteous; the Enemies of God – the Wicked

C. God’s Attributes Known to His People (Ps 100, 107)

Loyalty
Ps 5:7; 6:4; 13:5; 17:7; 18:50; 21:7; 23:6; 25:6, 7, 10; 26:3; 31:7, 16, 21; 32:10; 33:5, 18, 22, 36:5, 7, 10; 40:10, 11; 42:8; 44:26; 48:9; 51:1; 52:1, 8; 57:3; 10; 59:10, 16, 17; 62:12; 63:3; 66:20; 69:13,16; 77:8; 85:7, 10; 86:5, 13, 15; 88:11; 89:1, 2, 14, 24, 28, 33, 49; 90:14; 92:2; 94:18; 98:3; 100:5; 101:1; 103:4, 8, 11, 17; 106:1, 7, 45; 107:1, 8, 15, 21, 31, 43; 108:4; 109:12, 16, 21, 26; 115:1; 117:2; 118:1, 2, 3, 4, 29; 119:14, 64, 76, 88, 124, 149, 159; 130:7; 136:1-26; 138:2, 8; 141:5; 143:8, 12; 144:2; 145:8; 147:11)
Goodness
Ps 16:2; 25:8; 34:8; 54:6; 68:10; 73:1; 86:5; 100:5; 106:1; 107:1; 118:1, 29; 119:68; 135:3; 136:1; 145:9
Faithfulness
Ps 33:4; 36:5; 40:10; 88:11; 89:1, 2, 5, 8, 24, 33, 49; 92:2; 96:13; 100:5; 119:75, 86, 90, 138; 143:1
Righteousness
Ps 7:9; 11:7; 15:2; 22:31; 31:1; 35:24; 50:6; 51:14; 69:27; 71:2, 15, 16, 19, 24; 72:1; 89:16; 97:6; 98:2; 103:17; 111:3; 112:3, 9; 119:40, 142; 143:1; 145:7
Compassion
Ps 25:6; 40:11; 51:1; 69:16; 77:9; 78:38; 79:8; 103:4, 8, 13; 106:46; 111:4; 112:4; 116:5; 119:77

D. The Davidic Covenant (Ps 78, 89, 132)

Authors of Psalms

Name	Quantity	References
David	73	Psalms 3-9, 11-32, 34-41, 41-65, 68-70, 86, 101, 103, 108-110, 122, 124, 131, 133, 138-145
Asaph	12	Psalms 50, 73-83
Descendants of Korah	10	Psalms 42, 44-49, 84-85, 87
Solomon	2	Psalms 72, 127
Ethan	1	Psalm 89
Heman	1	Psalm 88
Moses	1	Psalm 90
Anonymous	50	Remaining

Authors of Psalms

Divisions of Psalms

Psalms	Chapters	Quantity	Theme Correlation
Book I	1 – 41	41	Genesis: Creation, Sin, Salvation
Book II	42 – 72	31	Exodus: Redemption
Book III	73 – 89	17	Leviticus: Sanctuary
Book IV	90 – 106	17	Numbers: Desert Wanderings
Book V	107 – 150	44	Deuteronomy: Word of God

Divisions of Psalms

Rhythm of Thought – Types of Hebrew Parallelism

Name	Example	References
Synonymous Parallelism	O LORD, do not rebuke me in Your anger, Nor chasten me in Your wrath.	Ps 1:2, Ps 6:1, Ps 7:16, Ps 15:1, Ps 19:1, Ps 49:1, 51:3; Prov 9:10, Prov 16:18, Prov 16:28, Prov 19:29
Antithetical Parallelism	The wicked borrows and does not pay back, But the righteous is gracious and gives.	Ps 37:21, Ps 1:6, Prov 10:1, 2, 4, 7
Synthetic Parallelism	God is our refuge and strength, A very present help in trouble.	Ps 46:1, Ps 3:4, 29:1, 95:3, Eccl 11:1
Climactic Parallelism	In You our fathers trusted; They trusted and You delivered them. To You they cried out and were delivered; In You they trusted and were not disappointed.	Ps 22:4-5
Emblematic Parallelism	As the deer pants for the water brooks, So my soul pants for You, O God.	Ps 41, Ps 42:1, Ps 103:13
Formal (Catch-All)	“But as for Me, I have installed My King Upon Zion, My holy mountain.”	Ps 2:6, others

Rhythm of Thought – Types of Hebrew Parallelism

Rhythm of Sound – Types of Hebrew Poetry

Name	Definition	References
Acrostic	Text stanzas begin with a new letter of the Hebrew alphabet and continue sequentially until completion. A memory device.	Ps 9, 10, 24, 37, 111, 112, 119, 145; Prov 31:10-31; Lam 1, 2, 3, 4
Alliteration	The same sound begins with different words through the text.	Ps 122:6
Assonance	The end of each line is a sound alike.	Ps 119:29
Paronomasia	A play on words as written and read – Mispat (justice) vs Mispah (bloodshed)	Is 5:7
Onomatopeia	A word that sounds like what it is describing.	Ps 81:7
Inclusion	A line of text is repeated again in the same text.	Ps 118:1, 29

Rhythm of Sound – Types of Hebrew Poetry

Messianic Psalms

Instance	Messianic Description	Psalm	Fulfillment
1	God declares Jesus to be His Son.	Ps. 2:7	Matt. 3:17
2	All things will be put under Jesus’ feet.	Ps. 8:6	Heb. 2:8
3	Jesus will be resurrected from the dead.	Ps. 16:10	Mark 16:6-7
4	God will forsake Jesus in His hour of need.	Ps. 22:1	Matt. 27:46
5	Jesus will be scorned and mocked.	Ps. 22:7-8	Luke 23:35
6	Jesus’ hands and feet will be pierced.	Ps. 22:16	John 20:25-27
7	Others will gamble for Jesus’s clothing.	Ps. 22:18	Matt. 27:35-36
8	Not one of Jesus’ bones will be broken.	Ps. 34:20	John 19:32-33, 36
9	Jesus will be accused by false witnesses.	Ps. 35:11	Mark 14:57
10	Jesus will be hated without a cause.	Ps. 35:19	John 15:25
11	Jesus will come to do God’s will.	Ps. 40:7-8	Heb. 10:7
12	Jesus will be betrayed by a friend.	Ps. 41:9	Luke 22:47
13	Jesus’s throne will last forever.	Ps. 45:6	Heb 1:8
14	Jesus will ascend to God’s right hand.	Ps. 68:18	Mark 16:19
15	Zeal for God’s house will consume Jesus.	Ps. 69:9	John 2:17
16	Jesus will be given vinegar and gall to drink.	Ps. 69:21	Matt. 27:34
17	Jesus will be a worldwide king.	Ps. 72:1-19	Rev. 19:11-20:6
18	Jesus will pray for His enemies	Ps. 109:4	Luke 23:34
19	Jesus’ betrayer’s place will be filled by another.	Ps. 109:8	Acts 1:20
20	Jesus’ enemies will be made subject to Him.	Ps. 110:1	Matt. 22:44
21	Jesus will be a priest like Melchizedek.	Ps. 110:4	Heb. 5:6
22	Jesus will be the chief cornerstone.	Ps. 118:22	Matt. 21:42
23	Jesus will come in the name of the Lord.	Ps. 118:26	Matt. 21:91

Messianic Psalms

Interpretive History of Psalms

A. Writings – Individual and Freestanding

Psalms separately inspired and valued as:

Prophetic
Instructive
Allegorical
Historical-Grammatical

B. Worship – For Choirs and Others

C. Compilations – Scrolls, Codices or Books

Ancient Development of Psalms

The process of origination of the Psalms followed (1) individual personal development (2) giving of the Psalms to the Levites for temple worship (later synagogues), and (3) for collection to the book or compilation.

Each psalm originated as a separate piece of individual original work among the political and cultic leaders of Israel (Levites). The political leaders of Israel include Moses, David, and Solomon, and the cultic leaders include Asaph, the sons of Korah, Heman, and Ethan among them all.

After the Psalms were given to the Israelites for public worship in the temple, they were arranged in collection for retrieval and use. The origination of the Psalms was not collected in chronological order, theme, or by the author. They were collected and arranged with editorial intent. The words were retained, but the accompanying music detail was lost.

Psalm Order Formation by Intent

Hebrew Terms of Intent:	Zakar	Yadah	Halel
Meaning:	Remembrance	Acknowledgment	Praise
Idea:	A plea to God we are in trouble	Acknowledgment of answered prayer	Exaltation to God for who He is
Type:	Dirge: Lament (Psalms of Disorientation)	Gratitude: Declared Praise (Psalms of Reorientation)	Hymn: Descriptive Praise (Psalms of Orientation)

Psalm Order Formation by Intent

Psalm Order Formation by Type

The Laments (Psalms of Disorientation)		The Declaratives (Psalms of Reorientation)		The Descriptives (Psalms of Orientation)
Components:	Address Lament Confession of Trust Petition Vow to Praise or Declarative Praise of God	Components:	Proclamation to Praise God Summary Statement Report of Deliverance Praise of God	Components:	Call to Praise Cause of Praise Renewed Call to Praise
References:	Individual Laments: Ps 3-7, 9-10, 12-14, 17, 22, 25-28, 31, 35, 38-43, 52-57, 59, 61, 63-64, 69-71, 77, 86, 88, 89, 109, 120, 140-142 National Laments: Ps 44, 60, 74, 79, 80, 83, 85, 9	References:	Ps 18, 30, 32, 34, 40, 65, 67, 92, 106, 107, 116, 118, 121, 124, 138	References:	Ps 33, 36, 105, 111, 113, 117, 135, 136, 146, 147

Psalm Order Formation by Type

Psalm Order Formation by Author

Distribution of Books within Psalms

Book 1	Book 2	Book 3	Book 4	Book 5
Ps 1 – Ps 42	Ps 43 – Ps 72	Ps 74 – Ps 89	Ps 90 – Ps 106	Ps 107 – Ps 150

Psalm Order Formation by Author
Distribution of Books within Psalms

Book 1 – Majority of Davidic Psalms

Anonymous (cf.: Acts 4:25-26)	David (Anonymous Ps 10, 33)
Ps 1 -2	Ps 3 – 41

Psalm Order Formation by Author
Book 1 – Majority of Davidic Psalms

Book 2 – Majority of Davidic Psalms

Korah	Asaph	David (Anonymous 66, 67, 71)	Solomon
Ps 42 – 49	Ps 50	Ps 51 – 71	Ps 72

Psalm Order Formation by Author
Book 2 – Majority of Davidic Psalms

Book 3 – Central Position of Davidic Psalm

Asaph	Korah	David	Korah	Ethan
Ps 73 – 83	Ps 84 – 85	Ps 86	Ps 87 – 88	Ps 89

Psalm Order Formation by Author
Book 3 – Central Position of Davidic Psalm

Book 4 – Davidic Psalms Evenly Distributed

Moses	Anonymous	David (Anonymous 102)	Anonymous
Ps 90	Ps 91 – 100	Ps 101 – 103	Ps 104 – 106

Psalm Order Formation by Author
Book 4 – Davidic Psalms Evenly Distributed

Book 5 – Davidic Psalms Evenly Distributed

Anonymous	David	Anonymous	Ascents	Anonymous	David	Anonymous
Ps 107	Ps 108 – 110	Ps 111 – 119	David: Ps 122 Ps 124 Ps 131 Ps 133 Solomon: Ps 127	Ps 135 – 137	Ps 138 – 145	Ps 146 – 150

Psalm Order Formation by Author
Book 5 – Davidic Psalms Evenly Distributed

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Prayers through Psalms

By James Austin in Theology

Songs to the accompaniment of a stringed instrument. Psalmoi (Greek) or Tehillim (Hebrew) to mean songs of praise or interest to the reader or listener. My personal prayers while reading through the Books of Psalms.

Book One

Chapter	Context	Response
Psalm 1	The Righteous and the Wicked Contrasted	LORD, you alone are completely righteous and You are my everlasting source of righteousness.
Psalm 2	The Reign of the LORD’S Anointed	LORD Jesus, You are the all-powerful and ultimate ruler of all, and I praise You for Your authority, wisdom, and reign.
Psalm 3	Morning Prayer of Trust in God	LORD Jesus, You are my shield and my rock and there is salvation by no other name than Yours.
Psalm 4	Evening Prayer of Trust in God	Holy Spirit, Your presence is what I desire to worship You, LORD, for who You are when I draw near to You.
Psalm 5	Prayer for Protection from the Wicked	LORD, I trust in You to lead me in Your way to keep me safe as you are my refuge.
Psalm 6	Prayer for Mercy in Time of Trouble	LORD, let not my iniquities keep me from You while I plea for your mercy and forgiveness.
Psalm 7	The LORD Implored to Defend the Psalmist against the Wicked	LORD, you have sustained me all these years and it is my continuous heart of repentance that I offer to You.
Psalm 8	The LORD’S Glory and Man’s Dignity	LORD, how awesome is the work of Your hands to bring to existence the Universe and all that exists.
Psalm 9	A Psalm of Thanksgiving for God’s Justice	LORD, let the people of all nationalities see Your glory and what You have made and decreed.
Psalm 10	A Prayer for the Overthrow of the Wicked	LORD, let not the wicked prevail and lend Your strength to the afflicted who trust in You.
Psalm 11	The LORD a Refuge and Defense	LORD, as you hate the wicked and violent, let Your compassion be the source of refuge for those who are Yours.
Psalm 12	God, a Helper against the Treacherous	LORD, while many have abandoned You and Your ways, remember me, and deliver me to safety as I trust in Your word.
Psalm 13	Prayer for Help in Trouble	LORD, while at times I grow distant, may Your steadfast love cause me to rejoice in Your salvation.
Psalm 14	Folly and Wickedness of Men	LORD, You cannot abide those who deny You exist while You restore the fortunes of Your people.
Psalm 15	Description of a Citizen of Zion	LORD, You dwell with those who walk blamelessly before You by the power of Your Spirit.
Psalm 16	The LORD the Psalmist’s Portion in Life and Deliverer in Death	LORD Jesus, Your defeat over death and Your resurrection is astonishing and I confess as my testimony that You are God.
Psalm 17	Prayer for Protection against Oppressors	LORD, as I call upon You day-by-day, deliver me of any wickedness within me and let my praise please You.
Psalm 18	The LORD Praised for Giving Deliverance	LORD, You are the source of my security and significance while my identity and whole being rests in You.
Psalm 19	The Works and the Word of God	LORD, never let Your word depart from my heart and mind as I worship and honor you throughout all my days.
Psalm 20	Prayer for Victory over Enemies	LORD, as I bear Your name, let it be both in voice and deed that I remember all You’ve spoken in Your word.
Psalm 21	Praise for Deliverance	LORD, I exalt You over all authorities and powers that reside on the Earth for all time.
Psalm 22	A Cry of Anguish and a Song of Praise	LORD Jesus, You are worthy of all power and authority as the lamb who was slain for the redemption of the world.
Psalm 23	The LORD, the Psalmist’s Shepherd	LORD, Your goodness and mercy are a comfort to me as I seek You and dwell in Your house forever.
Psalm 24	The King of Glory Entering Zion	LORD, You are the King of glory, and it is You in whom I delight.
Psalm 25	Prayer for Protection, Guidance and Pardon	LORD, I am completely reliant upon You to guide my decisions and the course of this life You have given to me.
Psalm 26	Protestation of Integrity and Prayer for Protection	LORD, You are my focus, and I will proclaim You, and serve You as my delight all my days.
Psalm 27	A Psalm of Fearless Trust in God	LORD, if not You in my life, then nothing as You are the One I desire above all else.
Psalm 28	A Prayer for Help, and Praise for Its Answer	LORD, you are the refuge of Your anointed, and those who trust in You rejoice!
Psalm 29	The Voice of the LORD in the Storm	LORD, Your voice is full of power, majesty, and splendor as it speaks of Your glory and holiness.
Psalm 30	Thanksgiving for Deliverance from Death	LORD, my heart sings of your mercy and abundant forgiveness that I would tell others of your love, kindness, and faithfulness!
Psalm 31	A Psalm of Complaint and of Praise	LORD, as I age and become drained of vitality and strength by wear and decay, I place into Your hands my entire being.
Psalm 32	The blessedness of Forgiveness and of Trust in God	LORD, You are my hiding place as my sins are covered and my transgressions are forgiven.
Psalm 33	Praise to the Creator and Preserver	LORD, by the guidance of Your word, in spirit and truth, I worship You as Your abundant love is steadfast and my continued delight.
Psalm 34	The LORD, a Provider, and Deliverer	LORD, the presence of Your Spirit overflowing within and over the pages of Your Word testifies to my spirit Your goodness.
Psalm 35	Prayer for Rescue from Enemies	LORD, You are Great and above all, and I trust You to go before me during trials and encounters of heavy burden.
Psalm 36	The wickedness of Men and Lovingkindness of God	LORD, Your steadfast love is new every morning and it stands as an example of the love You have empowered me to give to people when it sometimes isn’t so easy.
Psalm 37	Security of Those Who Trust in the LORD, and Insecurity of the Wicked	LORD, You have demonstrated again and again that when I delight in You, You, in turn, give me the desires of my heart and help make my steps sure and straight.
Psalm 38	Prayer of a Suffering Penitent	LORD, while on my knees and face to the floor before You, You know my heart and my day-by-day desperate prayers of deliverance and repentance from the sins that I despise.
Psalm 39	The Vanity of Life	LORD, PLEASE hear the complaint of my distress for permanent sanctification as I desire to walk by the Spirit and continuously bear the fruit You desire.
Psalm 40	God Sustains His Servant	LORD, while the pressures and evils of this world clamor for my attention and interest, I remember Your work of faithfulness and mercy as You are my ever-present help and deliverer.
Psalm 41	The Psalmist in Sickness Complains of Enemies and False Friends	LORD, I confess I have greatly sinned against You and others, and yet by Your grace, I trust in You for forgiveness and cleansing You have done.

Book Two

Chapter	Context	Response
Psalm 42	Thirsting for God in Trouble and Exile	LORD, even as some who are known by your name are contentious and contradictory, let Your grace and peace rest upon me as I seek Your truth.
Psalm 43	Prayer for Deliverance	LORD God, my hope is in You even while some within the household of faith are in turmoil and live in a spirit of error.
Psalm 44	Former Deliverances and Present Troubles	LORD, You are my ever-present and constant source of help and confidence.
Psalm 45	A Song Celebrating the King’s Marriage	LORD, You are my delight, and I worship You and honor You as my everlasting and glorious King.
Psalm 46	God the Refuge of His People	LORD, be forever exalted among the nations as You are our eternal rock and high tower worthy of all glory, praise, and honor.
Psalm 47	God the King of the Earth	My LORD Most High, Your reign and seat of power over all Heaven and Earth is filled with righteousness and praise.
Psalm 48	The Beauty and Glory of Zion	LORD, Your steadfast love is abundant while You dwell in our hearts by Your Holy Spirit.
Psalm 49	The Folly of Trusting in Riches	LORD, even in times of fear and anxiety, I will attend my heart, mind, soul, and strength to You and Your Kingdom as You are worthy of all praise and glory.
Psalm 50	God the Judge of the Righteous and the Wicked	LORD, as my thought life is my biggest problem, I will trust in Your righteous judgments and discipline as I desire to be close to You always.
Psalm 51	A Contrite Sinner’s Prayer for Pardon	LORD, I have sinned against You innumerable times, yet I trust you and desire to please You in repentance as I love You and want to serve You all the days You have given to me.
Psalm 52	Futility of Boastful Wickedness	LORD, all that I have is Yours, and it is Your steadfast love that I will always trust.
Psalm 53	Folly and Wickedness of Men	LORD, I ask for Your continued presence and protection all my days as I seek You and call upon You as my God who I love and worship.
Psalm 54	Prayer for Defense Against Enemies	LORD, hear my prayer and uphold my life to glorify You and serve Your Kingdom in every way that You desire as I trust and obey You in truth.
Psalm 55	Prayer for the Destruction of the Treacherous	LORD, yet while in distress about society today, I trust in You as You are Just, and I am assured and confident that You are at work in Your Kingdom.
Psalm 56	Supplication for Deliverance and Grateful Trust in God	LORD, as You know my pleas for deliverance from besetting sin and obstinate selfish interest, I have faith in You, and I trust You for what You’re doing to transform my heart.
Psalm 57	Prayer for Rescue from Persecutors	LORD, awaken my spirit to produce a love that I wish to live in full all my days before You.
Psalm 58	Prayer for the Punishment of the Wicked	LORD, Your judgments upon the wicked are righteous, and I rejoice in Your acts of justice.
Psalm 59	Prayer for the Deliverance from Enemies	LORD, deliver me from the enemy of sin as I trust You to permanently remove corrupt desires that set a distance between us.
Psalm 60	Lament Over Defeat in Battle, and Prayer for Help	LORD, my courage originates from You as You are my shield and my defense.
Psalm 61	Confidence in God’s Protection	LORD, appoint Your steadfast love and guidance over those who are shepherds of Your word.
Psalm 62	God Alone a Refuge From Treachering and Oppression	LORD, You are my safety and security, and You are the source of my significance while I trust you for fulfillment and nourishment; Your word is my lamp and my guide.
Psalm 63	The Thirsting Soul Satisfied in God	LORD, while adversaries of Your kingdom are contentious and critical, I will trust in You and Your word for instruction and truth by Your Spirit.
Psalm 64	Prayer for Deliverance From Secret Enemies	LORD, keep my heart and mind from the deceptive and wicked influences of evil people who appear well-meaning and of “goodwill.”
Psalm 65	God’s Abundant Favor to Earth and Man	LORD, forgiveness, restoration, and salvation are made possible through Your Son so that You are glorified and given all due honor and praise.
Psalm 66	Praise for God’s Mighty Deeds and For His Answer to Prayer	LORD, You have given me the ability to perceive by the sense within me You have designed, and with these faculties, I choose to see and hear You, and learn Your ways and praise You.
Psalm 67	The Nations Exhorted to Praise God	LORD, the nations are under Your rule and subject to honor You and confess before You that You are LORD and Creator of Heaven and Earth.
Psalm 68	The God of Sinai and of the Sanctuary	LORD, may You be blessed by your graciousness and peace upon Your people who are known by Your name.
Psalm 69	A Cry of Distress and Imprecation on Adversaries	LORD, may Your name be magnified through my life, conduct, and character as You are faithful and my anchor during times of trouble.
Psalm 70	Prayer for Help Against Persecutors	LORD, be promptly attentive to my pleas for your presence so that I would be delivered of anything and everything that might offend You.
Psalm 71	Prayer of an Old Man for Deliverance	LORD, it is my prayer that the fruits of the Spirit would reign within me as I age according to Your will.
Psalm 72	The Reign of the Righteous King	LORD Jesus, may I model Your heart for the needy, the poor, and the oppressed as You are my treasure and everlasting perfect King.

Book Three

Chapter	Context	Response
Psalm 73	God is My Strength and Portion Forever	LORD, You alone possess the words of eternal life and salvation, and You are my refuge in who I trust to guide me with Your counsel and Spirit.
Psalm 74	Arise, O God, Defend Your Cause	LORD God, call to remembrance how I have trusted You and delighted in You where You were at work in my heart and soul for your glory and good pleasure.
Psalm 75	God Will Judge with Equity	LORD, Your judgments are righteous and just as You lift up and redeem some while holding down and casting aside others.
Psalm 76	Who Can Stand Before You?	LORD, You are awesome and wonderous; who can stand before You and Your majestic glory?
Psalm 77	In the Day of Trouble I Seek the Lord	LORD, without You, life is desolate and unfruitful, yet I remember Your work in my heart and spirit to love and worship You to honor and praise You all my days.
Psalm 78	Tell the Coming Generation	My LORD Most High, deliver me with permanent repentance that I would not offend You by repeat offenses. Please pierce my heart to change it where I would delight in You more than any other thing that I would want or desire.
Psalm 79	How Long, O LORD?	LORD, deliver me from any and all competing interests that would draw me away from You. My desire is to be holy, pure, and righteous as You are, and as You are the God of salvation, I trust in You for the work of Your compassion.
Psalm 80	Restore Us, O God	LORD, save and restore me from my lapses in attention and sincere devotion. My desire is with You, but I ask You to cleanse and sustain me as my spirit is nourished by Your steadfast love.
Psalm 81	Oh, That My People Would Listen to Me	LORD, I call to You from within my mind and soul to transform my heart and fill me with Your Spirit. You alone are my delight and satisfaction.
Psalm 82	Rescue the Weak and Needy	LORD, I am in awe of Your pronouncements of justice among those who were appointed to govern and judge the nations. Let Your heart for justice and compassion be seared into my heart and mind as I want to be marked and indwelled by Your righteousness and holiness.
Psalm 83	O God, Do Not Keep Silence	LORD, You are great and most fearsome over all the nations and across all generations for all time!
Psalm 84	My Soul Longs for the Courts of the LORD	LORD of Hosts, I trust in You, and I am ever grateful to appear before You in Your presence. Accept my worship and prayer as I honor You all the days of my life.
Psalm 85	Revive Us Again	LORD, let me not turn back to the folly of my old ways as You are faithful. Keep me from temptation and stumbling as I offer You my prayers and devotion.
Psalm 86	Great Is Your Steadfast Love	LORD, even in the face of my repeated sin which I despise, I lift up my soul to You. Hear my pleas for Your mercies and grace for sanctification. Let Your Spirit remind me each day of Your ways and to fear Your name.
Psalm 87	Glorious Things of You Are Spoken	LORD, it is entirely pleasing that You would love to dwell among Your people!
Psalm 88	I Cry Out Day and Night Before You	LORD, every day my prayers are offered to You in adoration, confession, thanksgiving, and supplication, where I am calling to You for peace and right relationship with You. Please hear my prayers and answer me in Your abundant mercy and kindness.
Psalm 89	I Will Sing of the Steadfast Love of the LORD	LORD, how abundant are Your mercies and faithfulness as You are awesome and worthy of praise and exaltation. Your steadfast love for David and Your people proves to me Your faithfulness, and Your works of salvation give me hope.

Book Four

Chapter	Context	Response
Psalm 90	From Everlasting to Everlasting	LORD, the prayer of Your servant Moses is a delight as he is faithful and loyal to You and Your name. Let me bear the heart of Moses and the heart of David by what I learn in Your Word. You are generous and satisfying as I seek to know You through Your faithfulness to who You have appointed as leaders of Your people.
Psalm 91	My Refuge and My Fortress	LORD, the beauty of Your Word in this Psalm is unmatched by words uttered by human voice. For many years I have dwelled in Your Word, and by Your Spirit, I have been in Your keeping. I delight in Your dwelling places and where You would want me to be, where You would want me to go, and what You would want me to do. LORD, never let me forsake You and make Your keeping of my soul permanent as I seek You and abide in You.
Psalm 92	How Great Are Your Works	LORD, as I worship You and give offerings at Your church I attend, let this time and effort bear fruit as righteousness grows among members to glorify You.
Psalm 93	The LORD Reigns	LORD, as You reign in the hearts of Your people, let everyone see and understand how awesome and powerful You are. To see Your glory and holiness and proclaim Your goodness and trustworthy ways.
Psalm 94	The LORD Will Not Forsake His People	LORD, how long will You permit people to mock and profane Your Imago Dei in the name of modern “social justice”? Let Your justice and care for the impoverished, fatherless, abused, and oppressed grow in the hearts of Your people.
Psalm 95	Let Us Sing Songs of Praise	LORD, in joy, overflowing, I praise You and worship You. You are my peace and rest as I adore You because of who You are and by all Your wonderful attributes.
Psalm 96	Worship in the Splendor of Holiness	LORD, You reign over all the Earth, and You are worshiped by all Your people as creation testifies of Your goodness.
Psalm 97	The LORD’S Power and Dominion	LORD, I give thanks to Your holy name, and I rejoice in You. You are most high exalted over of creation and far above all elohim.
Psalm 98	Sing Praise to the King	LORD, Your judgments upon the nations are righteous, and Your steadfast love and faithfulness upon Your people bring praises to my lips. I rejoice in You by song and adoration as You are my everlasting confidence and peace.
Psalm 99	The LORD is Holy	LORD, You are holy, holy, holy as You are great and exalted above all Your creation and all nations!
Psalm 100	Give Thanks to the LORD	LORD, Your enduring love, which began from before Your creation, is steadfast and faithful.
Psalm 101	Remembering God’s Love	LORD, let Your people and appointed leaders be subject to Your wisdom according to Your truth and righteousness.
Psalm 102	A Prayer for Help	LORD, when I am in distress and circumstances seem hopeless, and without any viable way through hardship, You are there and bring me through. You are able to deliver Your people and Your creation through difficulties and disasters because You are God and in total control.
Psalm 103	Praise God, who Forgives	LORD bless You as your kingdom rules over all and as Your authority is set over all of the heavens and the Earth.
Psalm 104	Praise God, who Creates	LORD God, by Your will, You created everything, and by Your will, they are sustained. How incomprehensible are Your ways, and how marvelous are Your power and glory.
Psalm 105	Thanksgiving for God’s Deliverance	LORD God, I thank You for Your faithfulness to Your covenant across all generations. Your covenant fulfilled through Jesus, where the new covenant of Your kingdom lives on for Your glory is my joy and delight.
Psalm 106	The Unfaithfulness of God’s People	LORD God, I thank You for Your faithfulness to Your covenant across all generations. Your covenant fulfilled through Jesus, where the new covenant of Your kingdom lives on for Your glory is my joy and delight.

Book Five

Chapter	Context	Response
Psalm 107	Let the Redeemed of the LORD Say So	LORD, Thank You for Your steadfast love as it is wonderous and everlasting. By Your steadfast love Your people are delivered.
Psalm 108	With God We Shall Do Valiantly	LORD as I praise and worship You, I am moved and heartened as I desire to obey You with all my mind, heart, and strength.
Psalm 109	Help Me, O LORD My God	LORD, please be merciful to me as I have sinned in attitude, thought, and mind against Your people who are willfully disobedient against Your word. Please forgive me as I work to live out the fruits of the Spirit in gentleness, kindness, and grace.
Psalm 110	Sit at My Right Hand	LORD Jesus, it is awesome to consider who You are and Your authority over all of creation. You are the eternal High Priest and King of kings as our Messianic mediator between God and humanity.
Psalm 111	Great Are the LORD’s Works	LORD, thank You that You have given us Your word to learn of who You are, what You have done and what You are doing.
Psalm 112	The Righteous Will Never Be Moved	LORD, while Your word says that perfect love casts out all fear, I am in awe of Your fearsome power, knowledge, and presence.
Psalm 113	Who Is like the LORD Our God?	LORD, let me be humbled to witness Your glory as Your power and work are revealed throughout creation.
Psalm 114	Tremble at the Presence of the Lord	LORD, just as You have delivered Your people from captivity thousands of years ago, please deliver Your people from indifference, corruption, and their own spiritual preferences against Your interests.
Psalm 115	To Your Name Give Glory	LORD, much of what is produced in Your church is about money and status, as compared to Your instructions and glory. My heart and mind rests in You and as You have given abundant grace to Your people, that is my desire, too.
Psalm 116	I Love the LORD	LORD, You are gracious and righteous, and my gratitude belongs to You for who You are and what You have done through Your Son and the work of creation.
Psalm 117	The LORD’s Faithfulness Endures Forever	LORD, as Your lovingkindness is great and Your truth is everlasting, let all the nations praise and exalt You above all else.
Psalm 118	His Steadfast Love Endures Forever	LORD, as isolation, rejection, and enmity of people in Your church become pressed against me, and one another, my confidence stands in You and Your word as an anchor.
Psalm 119	Your Word Is a Lamp to My Feet	LORD, Your Word lights my path before me as Your truth and instructions are a delight to my soul. Your Word is pleasing, and the source of nourishment needed to glorify You and dwell in Your truth. By Your Spirit, teach me Your Word as it was originated and intended for Your purposes and good pleasure.
Psalm 120	Deliver Me, O LORD	LORD, I confess that at times my word is terse and abrasive from unwanted emotions or circumstances that have become contentious. Please help me to guard my tongue from deception and error where dishonor or indifference gets in between us, or those we love.
Psalm 121	My Help Comes from the LORD	LORD, I trust You to keep my heart and soul directed to Your ways and Your interests all my life.
Psalm 122	Let Us Go to the House of the LORD	LORD, let my worship be directed to You and just for what You have done for me. I want to be in worship where Your holiness and beauty is cherished and admired without sensational allure or mere emotional entanglement.
Psalm 123	Our Eyes Look to the LORD Our God	Non nisi te, Domine.
Psalm 124	Our Help Is in the Name of the LORD	LORD, I am susceptible to worldly influences that direct my attention away from the path of sanctification You have set before me. As you have directed my steps in life, I trust You to bring me to completion as Your workmanship.
Psalm 125	The LORD Surrounds His People	LORD, it is You alone I trust for my security and significance. It is not my desire to derive my sense of self-worth or value from anything other than who You say that I am. You are my prize and the treasure that I long to have. Please let Your Spirit keep my heart and mind directed toward You even in the face of towering obstacles.
Psalm 126	Restore Our Fortunes, O LORD	LORD, I am available for the work You see fit in which I could honor and serve You. Bring me to people and ministry that is for Your kingdom as suitable to Your interests.
Psalm 127	Unless the LORD Builds the House	LORD, You provide the resources necessary for Your people to dwell in You. As the birds of the air are cared for, and the lilies of the field are arrayed in beauty, warmth, and sunlight, You care for Your children because You love them.
Psalm 128	Blessed Is Everyone Who Fears the LORD	LORD, the lived and labor of this household belongs to You, and it is my desire that we honor You in obedience and by the fruit of the Spirit.
Psalm 129	They Have Afflicted Me from My Youth	LORD, I respect, admire, support, and defend Your people of modern Israel as I love Your people of ancient times even during their times of tribulation and alienation.
Psalm 130	My Soul Waits for the Lord	LORD, I do hope in Your word and my soul waits for You to dwell in Your lovingkindness. Thank you for Your lovingkindness, forgiveness, and renewal that I could stand before You.
Psalm 131	I Have Calmed and Quieted My Soul	LORD, how You guide me and where You take me is where I want to be. Even with persistent worldly pressures, and desires of the flesh, I will trust in You for my present and my future as You have guided me and kept my soul with You in the past.
Psalm 132	The LORD Has Chosen Zion	Father God, thank You for Your Son who makes it possible to love and honor You with all my heart, mind, soul, and strength. Thank You for Your servant, David who You love, and for Your promises fulfilled down through the ages as You are faithful.
Psalm 133	When Brothers Dwell in Unity	LORD, You are the origin of unity in truth. In You there is peace through You where the unity of Your people is found by what we accept as truth in what we understand and conclude about how existence, creation, and social order really is.
Psalm 134	Come, Bless the LORD	LORD, as blessings come from You, we bless You by praising You. Your blessings are abundant and beyond measure, as You bring to Your people the capacity to receive and give due honor and praise to You for Your glory.
Psalm 135	Your Name, O LORD, Endures Forever	LORD, You provide all that we need as You are good and above all gods, all pleasures, and anything above creation itself. I treasure You for the good that You have done and Your Son for what He is doing.
Psalm 136	His Steadfast Love Endures Forever	LORD, for the numerous works You have done for Your people, Your presence and power are undeniable and praiseworthy.
Psalm 137	How Shall We Sing the LORD’s Song?	LORD, as You have permitted the captivity of Your people to Babylon, I am reminded of the times of spiritual exile I have endured over the course of life. Help me to learn from those seasons of dryness where I am fully confident in You and Your sovereignty.
Psalm 138	Give Thanks to the LORD	LORD God, I do not want to set anything before You or above You. LORD, transform my heart will full and lasting repentance and obedience where I am able to walk according to the Spirit, according to Your will.
Psalm 139	Search Me, O God, and Know My Heart	Search me, O God, and know my heart; Try me and know my anxious thoughts; And see if there be any hurtful way in me and lead me in the everlasting way.
Psalm 140	Deliver Me, O LORD, from Evil Men	LORD, Your servant David serves as a model for me as praises and prayers are offered to You. When hardships from others are upon me, I will recount Your promises about maintaining my desire, will, and efforts to follow You and obey.
Psalm 141	Give Ear to My Voice	LORD, be merciful to me a sinner. The root of my unacceptable thoughts and words is my heart that needs regeneration and renewal. As I call out to You in repentance, please guard my heart that I would not think or speak in ways displeasing to You.
Psalm 142	You Are My Refuge	LORD, in our distress we reach out to You for mercy and deliverance. We at times become afraid because of what hardships and circumstances are upon us. We wish to avoid pain and suffering, and so we call to You even when our motives are not pure. Please be merciful to us who are unable to pray, praise, and petition correctly out of proper reasons to love and obey You.
Psalm 143	My Soul Thirsts for You	LORD, the urgency of restored fellowship with You by Your Spirit is heavy on the heart and mind as I reach out to You in prayer for cleansing, deliverance, and sanctification. Let my prayers be heard and answer them according to my plea, so that I would not ever offend You.
Psalm 144	My Rock and My Fortress	LORD, Your ever-present help is needed before, during, and after times of conflict with personal temptations, pressures, and interpersonal struggles. Let my voice be heard and anticipate what is needed for my continued and lasting work of devotion.
Psalm 145	Great Is the LORD	LORD, the best part of following You is Knowing You for who You are. You are my joy and my righteousness and my heart’s desire is to know You, LORD. I want to be found in You as I belong to You. You are my treasured possession, my peace, and I am nothing without You.
Psalm 146	Put Not Your Trust in Princes	LORD, it isn’t enough that my thoughts and words praise You and honor You. My desire is that my actions and conduct reflect Your grace and presence in my life. Let my life be a living sacrifice acceptable to You by what I do for those whom You love.
Psalm 147	He Heals the Brokenhearted	LORD, the power You have demonstrated since the beginning has been made evident by historical records from antiquity. Even today and until the new Heaven and Earth, You are at work to bring together Your interests and purposes for the nations and mankind.
Psalm 148	Praise the Name of the LORD	LORD, how wonderful is the splendor and magnificence of Your creative work. When I look to the mountains, I see You there. When I look to the stars and galaxies, I see You there. In my limited capacity to understand You and Your ways, I worship You.
Psalm 149	Sing to the LORD a New Song	LORD, as I sing and play my instruments of praise, may they be an acceptable offering to You. Bring to my heart more time and energy to commit the music I play in honor to You for worship and praise pleasing to You and Your people.
Psalm 150	Let Everything Praise the LORD	LORD God, may my offerings of praise, worship, confession, lament, and adoration be acceptable and pleasing to You. Let the accumulation of all my lifetime praises be as fruit that is well-pleasing and a blessing to You. I praise You and love You.

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Suffer the Afflicted

By James Austin in Theology

While the reader of the book of Job is presented with extraordinary hardships placed upon a blameless servant of God (Job 1:8), it becomes apparent that suffering can have a transcendent meaning and purpose that is not readily grasped. From a careful and thorough understanding of the Job text, we are presented with a poetic narrative that describes Job’s encounter with a spiritual adversary. From among the “sons of God” (benê’ hā’ ělō·hîm’) who appeared before Yahweh God, the satan figure in the narrative challenged the morally excellent state of Job in contradiction to how pleased God was with him. The formation of the presence and spectacle of imposed suffering upon the innocent outside of personal responsibility or external natural causes is an alarming theological possibility from a historical perspective.

What is suffering and what causes it?

Job’s antagonistic challengers Eliphaz, Bildad, Zophar, and Elihu, bring to mind the possibility of what causes for suffering arises from sin or lifestyles of disorder and unwise conduct. Even while Job was falsely charged as guilty of such causes, the underlying consistent premise among them indicates a more narrow validity of what the false accusations were. Throughout scripture, we observe numerous occurrences of suffering as an outcome of evil behaviors as a matter of course. In contrast to the absence of evil thoughts, words, or deeds of Job, Scripture is replete with mistakes, errors in judgment, and outright defiance that led to various levels of undue or unwanted misery. Consider the cause-and-effect relationships that exist between evil and suffering among the numerous stories of the Bible that serve as a source of wisdom for its readers.

From before the fall of mankind, the presence of evil in the universe exposed susceptible humanity to suffering. To eat of the tree of the knowledge of good and evil was to disposition humanity toward perpetual suffering as a consequence of its defiance against Yahweh. When the “serpent” (hā nā·ḥāš) contradicted Yahweh at the garden of Eden to beguile Eve (Gen 3:4), prior to the fall of humanity, there existed a precedent form of disorder within creation that in turn set the environment for participative human suffering. Disorder and evil that entered creation was a betrayal of Yahweh as Creator and separation or alienation, was to propagate for thousands of years with its corresponding expression as human suffering and misery. With violations of the Edenic, Mosaic, and Davidic covenants, through the New Covenant toward today among believers and unbelievers alike, people are subject to the effects of suffering that arise from spiritual conflict and natural causes, including corporate, generational, or personal sin.

To define human suffering is to understand the experience as pain or distress, both physical and emotional.¹ As to the ultimate cause of sin, Genesis 3:14-19 explicitly details the historical root background that explains the fall of humanity. However, suffering doesn’t necessarily stem from particular sins (Job 1:1, Jn 9:1-3, Job 5:6-7, Rom 5:12-14). As demonstrated in the New Testament, Jesus’ healing of the man born blind casts into a clear understanding that it was not a particular sin of the person suffering (or his parents) who would be responsible for the hardship. Moreover, the author of Romans makes clear that the presence of sin was in the world before the Mosaic law was delivered and sin is not counted where there is no law. Specifically, while suffering certainly existed since the fall and as a consequence of sin, suffering wasn’t recognized as an outcome of a particular sin as prohibited and condemned by a corresponding law or covenant stipulation.

Aside from human wickedness, suffering also results from calamity, adversity, or mishap. Examples include accidents (2 Sam 4:4, 2 Kings, 1:2, Luke 13:4), sickness (Gen 48:1, Ps 42:10; Matt 8:6), hunger and want (Job 30:3, Isa 29:6, Matt 25:42-43), and disasters (Isa 29:6, Matt 24:7, Acts 27:18-20). There are numerous sources of suffering that originate from the fallen nature of creation, too. Such as aging (2 Sam 19:34-35, Ps 17:9, Ecc 12:1), bereavement (Gen 23:1-2, Job 1:18-19, Jas 1:27), anxiety (Prov 12:25, Deut 28:65-67, Lk 21:26), foolishness (Ps 107:17, Prov 10:1, Jdg 11:34-36), satanic activity (Job 2:6-7, 1 Jn 5:19, Rev 2:10), demonic possession/oppression (Matt 8:28, Matt 12:22, Matt 15:22), and God’s will (Jn 9:3, Eph 1:11) all to serve as scriptural examples to contemplate, mitigate, or ease the gravity of suffering.

Why is suffering a pervasive condition throughout humanity?

The German philosopher Leibniz (1646-1716) originated the term “theodicy”² in 1710 to form an understanding of evil in the world that is not in conflict with the goodness of God. Leibniz asserted that the presence of evil in the world with the goodness of God is “the best of all possible worlds.”³ The inference of the theodicy about the best of all possible worlds, with suffering, brings attention to the sovereignty of God as a way to recognize Him as Creator with trust and confidence from His created beings about His purposes and intentions.

With the abundance and growth of evil and sin as a function of increased populations, moral decay, and the presence of spiritual darkness over societies and nations (Eph 6:12), there exists an increased and widespread effect of suffering notwithstanding the various other causes outlined above.

Where does suffering come from and where does it go?

In the discourse between Job and his accusers, it is evident there is a common cause that gives reason to those who suffer. The consistent premise among those who call Job to repent includes the presence of wickedness to explain why there is misery, loss, pain, and agony. As an assumption universally applied to those who undergo unexplained suffering, there must be a reason for its existence among the guilty. Notwithstanding natural or supernatural causes, the presence of suffering correlates to the presence of sin where the unwise can falsely conclude adverse judgment through natural, social, or unwanted personal outcomes. The voices of false accusations against Job from among his friends add to the suffering and contribute to the pressure that he would prove out the satan’s assail against God and curse Him to His face (Job 1:11).

Justice dispensed from wrongdoing often appears in the form of consequences that bear upon people in the form of adversity, hardship, or suffering. Intuitively, through life experiences, the notion of “what goes around comes around” makes for a type of resolution to injustice, wickedness, and evil that cannot stand. Even after Job’s confession and repentance (Job 42), Yahweh rebuked Job’s friends and informed them that His servant Job would pray for them to dismiss their folly (Job 42:8). Moreover, to dissipate the anger of Yahweh (Job 42:7), they were directly instructed to offer up burnt offerings of seven bulls and seven rams. Justice served in the form of sacrifices for sinful and unwise words against Job provided an escape from suffering, but there was still a loss of life and the cost of assets as a type of restitution.

Who does suffering affect? Who endures suffering and who causes it?

As Christ suffered, believers are expected to suffer too (Mk 13:13, Mt 10:17, Lk 12:16-17). It is the cost of godliness (Heb 12:11, Isa 38:17, Jn 15:2), and it is a condition of service to the body of Christ (Col 1:24, 2 Cor 4:10, Acts 9:16). The innocent are prepared for heaven through suffering (2 Cor 4:16-5:4) as they trust God for endurance as He sustains them (Ps 55:22-23, Ps 56:3-4, Ps 59:16). There are numerous references to God’s response to suffering, including deliverance of the afflicted (Job 42:10-12, Ps 34:19, Rev 7:16).

As Jesus spoke of the provisional grace of God upon the good and evil alike (Matt 5:45), His anger remains present upon the wicked who are among the suffering and afflicted (Ps 11:5, Ps 59:8, Ezek 36:6-7, Hab 2:9-12). Moreover, historically, and eschatologically, the judgment of God rests upon the wicked (Mal 3:5, Ex 3:19-20, Ps 73:16-18, Amos 1:3, Jas 2:13, 1 Pet 4:18, Rev 18:6-7).

How does suffering have a bearing on people, and our relationship with God?

As suffering implies physical and emotional distress, it at times accompanies initial or continuing pain, discomfort, anguish, anxiety, and other bodily or mental disorders that affect the well-being of individuals. In such a way, the person undergoing suffering is affected to include those in an immediate or more far-reaching sphere of influence. The weight of suffering affects the person and his surroundings to cascade to friends, family, coworkers, the community, and even further. There are wrong answers along the course of suffering (Job 4:7, Jn 9:2-3, Ezek 18:25). Adverse reactions include resentment (Job 2:9-10), terror (Job 23:13-15), strife (Job 40:2), envy (Ps 73:3), or disillusionment (Ps 73:13) as compared to a proper frame of mind or disposition. For example, submission to the interests and will of God can bring peace (Job 1:21, 2:9-10) and reverence (Matt 10:28).

How to respond in wisdom to the presence of suffering

As a conscious decision in response to personal suffering, numerous scriptural answers bear out the wisdom of God as given by examples in His word.

Share the burden of those who are subjected to medical hardships, poverty, incarceration, grieving, and insurmountable loss that brings despair. Galatians 6:2 advises us to bear the burden of others, and 1 Peter 4:12-19 leads us to enjoin our sufferings with Christ.
Live in empathy and of shared mind as we are urged to persevere and weep with those who weep (Rom 12:12-16).
Refrain from following the examples of Eliphaz, Bildad, and Zophar (Job’s friends). They were in error about assumptions and the causes or conditions of those subjected to suffering due to no immediate fault of their own.
Recognize that sovereign causes, the presence of evil, and personal consequences can involve mercy and grace as we are instructed to pray for those in affliction.
Draw close to God in humility (Jas 4:8) and let the adversity bring you and those you love to close unity with God and His intentions for your work, life, and spiritual well-being.

Citations

¹ Martin H. Manser, Dictionary of Bible Themes: The Accessible and Comprehensive Tool for Topical Studies (London: Martin Manser, 2009).
² G. W. F. Leibniz, Essais de Théodicée sur la bonté de Dieu, la liberté de l’homme et l’origine du mal (Paris: Garnier-Flammarion, 1969).
³ Craig G. Bartholomew and Ryan P. O’Dowd, Old Testament Wisdom Literature: A Theological Introduction (Downers Grove, IL; Nottingham: IVP Academic; Apollos, 2011), 158.

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Song of Solomon Walkthrough

By James Austin in Theology

Short OT book (eight chapters) containing only poetry. Its beautiful poetic passages describe the many dimensions of human love; there is little in this book that is explicitly religious. In addition to the popular title, the book is sometimes referred to as the “Song of Songs”; this is the most literal translation of the short title of the book in the original language and means “the best of all possible songs.” Some writers also entitle the book “Canticles”; this title is based on the name of the Latin version of the book, Canticum Canticorum.¹

Song of Solomon 1:
The bride of the king extols her desire and love.

Song of Solomon 2:
Bride and bridegroom speak of devotion and intimacy toward one another.

Song of Solomon 3:
The bride delights in her bridegroom as the king arrives for the wedding.

Song of Solomon 4:
The bridegroom delights in his bride and her beauty.

Song of Solomon 5:
The wedding ceremony of the bride, bridegroom, and guests.

Song of Solomon 6:
Women, young women, and the groom praise the bride.

Song of Solomon 7:
Expressions of intimacy between bride and bridegroom.

Song of Solomon 8:
The bride and bridegroom share a strong desire for one another.

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¹ Walter A. Elwell and Barry J. Beitzel, “Song of Solomon,” Baker Encyclopedia of the Bible (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1988), 1978.

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Book of Ecclesiastes Walkthrough

By James Austin in Theology

Ecclesiastes, Book of. OT book of wisdom literature. Ecclesiastes is philosophical in character, posing deep questions about the meaning and nature of human existence. “Ecclesiastes” is the Greek title for the book and has come into English from the Septuagint (Greek translation of the OT). In keeping with an early Jewish practice of adopting the first few words of a book as the title, the Hebrew title of Ecclesiastes is “The Words of Qoheleth, the Son of David, King in Jerusalem.” It is also known simply as “Qoheleth.”

The term “Qoheleth” is the author’s title for himself throughout the book (Ecc 1:1, 2, 12; 7:27; 12:8–10). It is the Hebrew participial form of a verb meaning “to assemble,” and thus it seems to designate one who speaks in an assembly. The word has often been translated “the preacher” in English. Because of the philosophical nature of the book, however, the title possibly indicates the author’s function or station as a leader in the community of wise men.¹

Ecclesiastes 1:
All is pointless and vanity, even the pursuit of wisdom.

Ecclesiastes 2:
Self-indulgence, extravagance, and hard work are pointless and vain.

Ecclesiastes 3:
The purposes of timing, life, and works of the righteous as they are gifts from God.

Ecclesiastes 4:
The futility and vanity of human reason without Godly wisdom.

Ecclesiastes 5:
Wisdom by the fear of God is of far greater worth than wealth and honor.

Ecclesiastes 6:
Life and the ability to enjoy it is a gift from God.

Ecclesiastes 7:
Reject folly and evils of the world to consider the works of God and practice wisdom.

Ecclesiastes 8:
Those who do well, and fear God are those who abide by His commands.

Ecclesiastes 9:
Live well and in wisdom as life is short and everyone dies.

Ecclesiastes 10:
Principles of wisdom and folly.

Ecclesiastes 11:
Preparing for the future and old age.

Ecclesiastes 12:
Remember God, fear Him, and keep His commandments.
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¹Walter A. Elwell and Barry J. Beitzel, “Ecclesiastes, Book Of,” Baker Encyclopedia of the Bible (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1988), 651.

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Book of Proverbs Walkthrough

By James Austin in Theology

Principles gleaned from the book of Proverbs that include many words of wisdom that give meaning to a life of understanding and righteousness.

Proverbs 1:
The value of discernment and instruction is in wisdom for correction and reproof.

Proverbs 2:
There is safety and security in the pursuit of wisdom as we cherish it and incline our hearts to understanding, discernment, and upright behaviors.

Proverbs 3:
Wisdom rewards those to seek to understand it and live by it. Trust in the LORD first and foremost and not what we understand by default consideration. Put the LORD first with all our heart and lean on Him for understanding.

Proverbs 4:
Do not forsake the words of wisdom and instruction. Instead, treasure wisdom and understanding as it comes from parents and wise elders who are a source of watchful guidance.

Proverbs 5:
Do not spurn reproof or hate instruction in favor of the adulteress or lady folly. Instead, be satisfied with the wife of your youth and do not become entangled in the trappings of sin.

Proverbs 6:
Shun laziness, be diligent, and do not forsake the wisdom and instruction of your parents. Keep yourself from the allure of adultery and adhere to discipline and wisdom as a way of life.

Proverbs 7:
The seductions of lust that feed a desire for intimacy with an adulterer will lead to certain destruction. The lusts of the flesh that betrays a covenant obligation are self-destruction that forfeits one’s life.

Proverbs 8:
The way of wisdom is to fear God, hate evil, and seek understanding. Take heed to instruction and discretion rooted in wisdom for blessing and well-being.

Proverbs 9:
The fear of the LORD is the beginning of wisdom, and to know God is to understand His ways. Lady folly is a dissipation of life and ultimately leads to death.

Proverbs 10:
Words of the wise and the foolish are indicators of character, identity, and status before God and others.

Proverbs 11:
The righteous, generous, gracious, and wise person is antithetical to the wicked who squander their lives who suffer hardship and loss.

Proverbs 12:
The righteous and the wicked are opposites where the weight of the righteous is far greater for the good of himself and others, and the weight of the wicked is troublesome, crippling, and fraught with terror.

Proverbs 13:
The ways of the righteous are fruitful, disciplined, peaceful, and reverent, while the ways of the wicked are wasteful, disgusting, insolent, and full of strife.

Proverbs 14:
The many upright ways of the righteous are a repudiation of the wicked who is senseless and leads a life of ruin.

Proverbs 15:
It isn’t just a character difference between those who abide in wisdom and righteousness and those who do not. The routine and intentional actions of the wicked, both large and small, are often disgraceful, senseless, and deceptive.

Proverbs 16:
While the proud of heart is an abomination to the LORD, there is a wide range of corresponding wicked behaviors that are immersed in perversion, strife, slander, and violence. By comparison, a righteous and humble spirit before the LORD is pleasing and delightful.

Proverbs 17:
The wicked and foolish of mind cannot stand the words of the righteous and wise. The mind of the wicked returns evil and senselessness for good. The good coming from those who are righteous and pursue wisdom.

Proverbs 18:
How the foolish speak, communicate verbally, or online gives sufficient cause for the righteous and wise to dismiss or avoid engagement and dialog. They inevitably become their own undoing and lead to their own demise.

Proverbs 19:
The priorities of the foolish and wicked are reckless or driven by evil motives, while the priorities of the wise and righteous lead to understanding, discipline, and peace.

Proverbs 20:
How the righteous and wise live is an anathema to the wicked and foolish. On the issues of life, one is repulsive to the other.

Proverbs 21:
The sovereignty of God permits for a time the soul of the wicked to crave evil. The evil of the wicked offers no mercy to others. It is the proud heart, the look of arrogance, inclinations, and dispositions of the wicked that reveal them.

Proverbs 22:
The everyday path of the perverse person is distant and rejected by the righteous and wise who carry out lives of honor and gracious conduct.

Proverbs 23:
The foolish despise wise words from the diligent and wise. If a foolish and wicked person is listening, expect contentiousness. So, it is better to avoid high-risk hostilities that could arise from the unwise and wicked person who speaks from a perverse or reprobate mind.

Proverbs 24:
It is better to value wisdom, understanding, and instruction than to be envious of wicked people who are continuously talking about trouble and devising schemes of evil.

Proverbs 25:
Seeking one’s own glory from platitudes of self-interest is dishonorable and isn’t good. To chase glory continuously is a form of spiritual gluttony that brings repulsive outcomes.

Proverbs 26:
Never underestimate the potential harms caused by the stratospheric error of foolish people who reject wisdom by incoherent thought, consistently flawed rationale, and wicked motives.

Proverbs 27:
The desires of man are never fully sated as there is no such thing as complete fulfillment apart from God.

Proverbs 28:
The contrast between good and evil is apparent by the motives and conduct of people. From the wicked to the poor and oppressed, or from the rich, righteous, faithful, and miserly, there are pronounced differences that point to disaster and destruction or peace and stability.

Proverbs 29:
The righteous are concerned about injustices among oppressed and exploited people, whereas the wicked are the oppressors themselves who are indifferent and even at times hostile to people in general.

Proverbs 30:
The magnificent Creator God and His Son have names who are worthy of worship as they are known and glorified forever.

Proverbs 31:
A valiant woman of God is to be praised and valued far above riches just as lady wisdom is to be treasured above all precious gems of exceeding value.

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Book of Job Walkthrough

By James Austin in Theology

Job 1:
While Job is faithful, the satan attacked Job with the permissive will of YHWH.

Job 2:
The satan again attacks Job with the permissive will of YHWH, but Job remains faithful.

Job 3:
By eloquent prose, Job curses the day he was born.

Job 4:
Job’s friend Eliphaz informs Job that the innocent doesn’t suffer.

Job 5:
Job’s friend makes it clear that God is just.

Job 6:
Job refutes his friend and bears his suffering and distress with no help.

Job 7:
Job affirms the brevity of life and insignificance of humanity.

Job 8:
Job’s friend Bildad advises Job about the rewards of the Godly.

Job 9:
Job recognizes the rightful place of YHWH the Creator and his place as subject to His will.

Job 10:
Job asks for relief and acquittal in the midst of his affliction and suffering.

Job 11:
Job’s friend Zophar accuses Job of sin and appeals to him to repent.

Job 12:
Job responds to his friend’s accusations and proclaims God’s wisdom.

Job 13:
Job continues to hope as he accuses his friends and argues his case with God.

Job 14:
Job makes clear that while humans live and die, death is certain and there is life after death.

Job 15:
Eliphaz declared that Job is guilty before God and describes the plight of the wicked.

Job 16:
Job calls his friends miserable comforters and speaks of his mistreatment from God.

Job 17:
Job further laments and prepares for death.

Job 18:
Job’s friend Bildad further informs Job of his wickedness to perish without descendants.

Job 19:
Job’s outcry against his friend’s torture, God’s injustice, and abandonment from his family.

Job 20:
Job’s friend Zophar again speaks about the destruction that awaits the wicked.

Job 21:
Job reasons with his friends and observes that wicked prospers until punished.

Job 22:
Job’s friend acknowledges God but speaks an imprecatory prayer and urges Job to repent.

Job 23:
Job is terrified of God’s presence but justifies his innocence before his friend Eliphaz.

Job 24:
Job describes social injustices and their due punishment.

Job 25:
Job’s friend Bildad speaks again to highlight the inferiority of man.

Job 26:
Job reasons with Bildad and acknowledges God’s power.

Job 27:
Job declared he is innocent and elaborates on the outcome of the wicked.

Job 28:
Wisdom is from God and its value is far above precious stones.

Job 29:
Job recalls his life of kindness and respect without hardship and suffering.

Job 30:
Job recounts his hope while before his mockers and desperate condition.

Job 31:
Job declares his innocence from a range of specific sinful behaviors.

Job 32:
In anger, Elihu addresses Job and his friends to accuse them of foolishness and incompetence.

Job 33:
Elihu proclaims his innocence as he counsels Job about the need for humanity’s redemption.

Job 34:
Elihu reviews Job’s view of injustice and proclaims God’s justice while declaring Job unwise.

Job 35:
Elihu condemns Job while calling attention to God’s justice.

Job 36:
Elihu insists on God’s discipline as YHWH is all-powerful, awesome, and just.

Job 37:
Elihu concludes by challenging Job to pay attention and urges him to revere God.

Job 38:
YHWH God appears before Job from the whirlwind to ask many questions of surpassing depth.

Job 39:
YHWH God continues to ask questions about the properties and attributes of created animals.

Job 40:
Job humbles himself before YHWH as he is further challenged by God about His creation.

Job 41:
YHWH God speaks of the leviathan to make clear all of heaven and earth belong to God.

Job 42:
Job repents and his health and prosperity are restored by YHWH God, and he intercedes for his friends to restore them as well.

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