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Confessions by Augustine

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A couple of weeks ago, I finished reading Confessions by Augustine. It was the first written work of Augustine I read as a whole, and it is a classic on a personal reading list of patristics. I’ve read sections of Augustine’s more comprehensive work in the City of God for research purposes on topics of theological interest. So there weren’t expectations going into the reading, but only an impression about who Augustine was and what others said and wrote about him. He is cited a lot and followed closely by devoted followers of Christ Jesus among all traditions of Christianity. Catholics often claim Augustine as an early Catholic church father for a time as he served within its early traditions.

The following is a synthesis of Confessions, a book-by-book summary produced by personal research that corresponds to my first reading of Augustine’s entire work.

INTRODUCTION

Augustine of Hippo (354-430 AD), also known as Saint Augustine, was a theologian, philosopher, and bishop of the North African city of Hippo Regius, located in present-day Annaba, Algeria. He is one of the most significant figures in the development of Western Christianity and a key figure in the history of Western philosophy. Augustine was initially a follower of Manichaeism and later Neoplatonism. Still, after converting to Christianity in 386 AD, he became a prominent Christian theologian and eventually the Bishop of Hippo in 396 AD.

Augustine’s writings, including his autobiographical work “Confessions” and his magnum opus “The City of God,” have profoundly impacted the development of Christian doctrine and the Western intellectual tradition. He tackled various theological issues, such as original sin, predestination, the nature of the soul, and the relationship between faith and reason. Augustine’s ideas have influenced many subsequent philosophers and theologians, including Thomas Aquinas, Martin Luther, and John Calvin.

In addition to his theological works, Augustine made important contributions to the fields of ethics, epistemology, and political philosophy. His ideas on the relationship between church and state, the nature of the just war, and the role of government in maintaining peace and order have had a lasting impact on Western political thought.

BOOK I – Childhood

In Book 1 of Confessions, Augustine begins his spiritual autobiography by addressing God and reflecting on the nature of sin and human frailty. The book primarily focuses on his early childhood, exploring how even as a young child, he was prone to sin and driven by desires that led him astray.

Augustine describes his early years in the Roman African city of Thagaste (present-day Souk Ahras, Algeria). He notes that he was born into a Christian family, but was not baptized as an infant due to the cultural practice of waiting until later in life. He also provides an account of his education, recounting his learning of Latin, reading, and writing, as well as his exposure to Roman literature.

Throughout Book 1, Augustine frequently returns to the theme of sin, illustrating it with anecdotes from his childhood. He mentions instances of selfishness, deceit, and disobedience, highlighting the sinful nature inherent in humans. A famous example he provides is the story of stealing pears from a neighbor’s tree, not out of hunger or necessity, but simply for the thrill of doing something forbidden.

Augustine also delves into the topic of human desire and its role in leading people away from God. He explores the idea of “concupiscence,” which he defines as disordered desires or lusts that distract individuals from pursuing God.

Overall, Book 1 of Confessions serves as an introduction to Augustine’s life and thought, setting the stage for his journey towards faith and his eventual conversion to Christianity. It highlights themes of sin, desire, and the human inclination towards wrongdoing, all of which will be further explored in subsequent books.

Book I Synopsis

He admires God’s Majesty and is inflamed with a deep desire to praise him
Man hath his being from God; and that God is in man, and man in God
God is wholly everywhere and is not by parts contained by the Creature
An admirable description of God’s Attributes
He prays for the forgiveness of sins and the Love of God
That he hath received all blessings from God: and how he hath been preserved by him
That even his infancy was subject to sin
A description of his childhood
The hatred that children bear for Learning, and their Love for Playing
How, for his play, he neglected his Parents’ Commandments
How he fell sick and how recovering, his Baptism was deferred
He is forced to his Book: which God turned for good purpose
With what studies he was chiefly delighted
Of the Greek and Latin Tongues
His Prayer to God
Against lascivious fables
The way of exercising youth in repeating and varying verses
That Men care more about observing the Rules of Grammar than the Laws of God
How he was more careful to avoid Barbarisms of Speech than the corruption of Manners
He thanked God for his Benefits

BOOK II – Teen Years

In Book 2 of Confessions, Augustine continues his spiritual autobiography, shifting his focus to his teenage years and examining the nature of lust, the consequences of sinful behavior, and the longing for God’s grace.

During this period of his life, Augustine admits to being heavily influenced by his sensual desires, driven by lust and the impulses of his youth. He recounts the story of stealing pears from a neighbor’s tree, an act that has become emblematic of his exploration of sin. Augustine emphasizes that the theft was motivated not by hunger or need, but by the sheer enjoyment of wrongdoing, which reveals the depths of human depravity.

Augustine also discusses his education and his early interest in literature and rhetoric. Although he acknowledges the value of acquiring knowledge, he criticizes the fact that his studies were often guided by ambition and the pursuit of worldly success, rather than by a desire for truth or closeness to God.

Throughout Book 2, Augustine reflects on the role of human will and its susceptibility to temptation. He recognizes that even though he was aware of the difference between right and wrong, he often chose to act against his better judgment, succumbing to temptation and sin. This realization leads him to contemplate the need for God’s grace to guide and transform human will, allowing individuals to overcome their sinful inclinations.

In summary, Book 2 of Confessions delves into Augustine’s teenage years, examining the pervasiveness of sin, the weakness of human will, and the necessity of God’s grace. It reveals how Augustine’s early experiences with desire and ambition eventually led him to seek a deeper understanding of God and the nature of human existence.

Book II Synopsis

He enters upon the Years and Sins of his Youth
He accuses his youth spent in the heat of Lustfulness
Of his Travels for his Studies’ sake and his Parents’ Purpose in it
How he robbed a Pear-tree
No man sins, but provoked by some Cause
All those things which under the show of Good invite us to sin, are in God alone, to be found True and perfect
He returns thanks to God for remitting these sins, and for keeping him from many others
What he loved in that his theft
Bad Company is infectious
Whatsoever is good, is in God

BOOK III – Teen Years and Early Adulthood

In Book 3 of “Confessions,” Augustine recounts his time as a young man in Carthage, where he pursued his education and grappled with the seductions of worldly desires. This book explores Augustine’s intellectual and moral development, highlighting the influence of Manicheism, a dualistic religion he embraced for nearly a decade, and his struggle with lust.

Upon arriving in Carthage, Augustine is confronted with a city filled with temptations and distractions. He becomes entangled in a passionate love affair and struggles with the allure of lust and sexual desire, which he later sees as a significant obstacle to his spiritual journey.

Augustine also encounters Manicheism, a religious movement that offers an appealing explanation for the existence of evil in the world. Manicheism posits a dualistic cosmos in which two opposing forces, Good (the spiritual realm) and Evil (the material realm), are engaged in an eternal struggle. Augustine is initially drawn to this religion, as it seemingly addresses his concerns about the problem of evil and provides a framework for understanding the human condition. However, over time, he becomes disillusioned with Manicheism due to its intellectual inconsistencies and the inability of its adherents to answer his deeper philosophical questions.

Despite his preoccupation with worldly desires and his involvement with Manicheism, Augustine never loses sight of his thirst for truth and wisdom. He continues to study and explore various intellectual disciplines, including rhetoric, philosophy, and the works of Cicero. His search for truth eventually leads him to discover the beauty and depth of the Christian faith.

In summary, Book 3 of “Confessions” narrates Augustine’s experiences in Carthage, as he wrestles with the temptations of worldly desires, grapples with the allure of Manicheism, and pursues his passion for knowledge. This period of his life lays the groundwork for the profound intellectual and spiritual transformations that await him in the years to come.

Book III Synopsis

He is caught with Love, which he hunted after
Of Stage Plays
His conversation with young Lawyers
How Tully’s Hortensius provoked him to study Philosophy
He sets lightly by the Holy Scriptures because of the simplicity of the style
How he was ensnared by the Manichees
The absurd doctrine of the Manichees
Heinous offenses what be, and how punished
The difference that is betwixt Sins, and betwixt the Judgment of God and Men
He speaks again of the Fig-tree, and derides the Manichees’ foolish conceits about it
His Mother’s Dream
The answer his Mother received from a Bishop, concerning his Conversion

BOOK IV – Early Adult Years

In Book 4 of Confessions, Augustine focuses on his early adult years, specifically his time as a teacher of rhetoric in Carthage and his growing dissatisfaction with the Manichaean religion. He also addresses themes such as ambition, pride, and grief as he delves into his personal relationships and professional life.

During this period, Augustine’s ambition and desire for worldly success drive him to become a successful teacher of rhetoric. However, he acknowledges that his pursuit of material wealth and fame often distracts him from seeking deeper truth and genuine wisdom.

Augustine discusses his continued involvement with Manichaeism, revealing that he began to find inconsistencies in its teachings and became increasingly disillusioned with its explanations of good and evil. As his skepticism grows, he starts to search for a more satisfying spiritual framework.

One of the central events in Book 4 is the death of a close friend, which deeply affects Augustine and causes him to reflect on the impermanence of life and the nature of human attachment. He confronts his own grief and recognizes that his attachment to temporal, earthly things ultimately leaves him unfulfilled and unsatisfied. This realization further motivates him to seek lasting truth and happiness beyond the material world.

Book 4 of Confessions portrays Augustine’s growing awareness of the limitations of worldly ambitions and the inadequacies of the Manichaean religion. Through his personal experiences and his exploration of loss, he becomes increasingly aware of the necessity for a more profound understanding of life and a closer relationship with God. This period in his life marks an important turning point in his spiritual journey, setting the stage for the subsequent phases of his conversion.

Book IV Synopsis

How long, and what ways he seduced others
He teaches Rhetoric, and despiseth a Wizard who promised him the Victory
Giving himself to Astrology, he is reclaimed by an ancient Physician
He relates the sickness and Baptism of his Friend, whom himself had affected with Heresy: he grievously laments his Death
Of Tears in our Prayers for, and Bewailing of, the Thing Beloved
He tells with what great Affection he loved his Friend
The impatientness of grief constrains us to shift our dwellings
Time cures Sorrow
The comparing of Human Friendship with Divine
All Beauty is from God, who is to be prayed for all
All things are created mutable in themselves, and immutable in God
Love of the Creatures is not forbidden, provided that in those which please us, God be loved
Love, whence it comes
Of his Book of Fair and Fit
How his Understanding being overshadowed with corporeal images, he could not discern the spiritual
The admirable Aptness to Learning, and the great Understanding St. Augustine had

BOOK V – Rome, Milan, and Manichaeism

In Book 5 of Confessions, Augustine recounts his departure from Carthage to Rome and then his appointment as a teacher of rhetoric in Milan, Italy. This period in his life is marked by significant events and encounters that play a crucial role in shaping his intellectual and spiritual development.

One key event during this time is Augustine’s disillusionment with Manichaeism. While teaching in Rome, he meets a famous Manichaean bishop named Faustus, hoping to find answers to his doubts about the religion. However, Augustine becomes disappointed when he realizes that Faustus cannot provide the intellectual depth or satisfying explanations he is seeking. This meeting further erodes Augustine’s confidence in Manichaeism and accelerates his journey toward Christianity.

Upon moving to Milan, Augustine encounters the influential Bishop Ambrose, a renowned theologian and preacher. Ambrose’s eloquence, intelligence, and deep understanding of the Christian faith greatly impress Augustine. His exposure to Ambrose’s sermons and teachings, as well as his interpretation of the Scriptures, begins to dismantle Augustine’s previous objections to Christianity. Additionally, Ambrose’s personal kindness toward Augustine fosters a relationship that serves as a significant catalyst for Augustine’s conversion.

While in Milan, Augustine also becomes acquainted with Neoplatonism, a school of philosophy that synthesizes elements of Plato’s thought with other philosophical and religious traditions. Neoplatonism helps Augustine gain a new perspective on the nature of evil, which he comes to understand as the absence of good rather than a positive force in itself. This insight aids in reconciling his previous struggles with the problem of evil in Christian doctrine.

Book 5 of Confessions depicts crucial moments in Augustine’s spiritual journey, as his disillusionment with Manichaeism leads him to engage more deeply with Christian thought. His encounters with Ambrose and Neoplatonism provide him with a new understanding of Christianity, setting the stage for his eventual conversion in Book 8.

Book V Synopsis

He stirs his own Soul to praise God
God’s presence can no man avoid, seeing he is everywhere
Of Faustus the Manichee: and of Astrologies
Only the Knowledge of God makes happy
The rashness of Faustus, in teaching what he knew not
Faustus was eloquent by Nature, rather than by Art
He falls off from the Manichees
He takes a Voyage to Rome, against the will of his Mother
Of a shrewd Fever that he fell into
His Errors before his receiving the Doctrine of the Gospel
How he compared the Manichees’ Tenets with the Catholics
The cunning Tricks put at Rome by Scholars upon their Masters
He goes to Milan to teach Rhetoric, and how St. Ambrose there entertains him
Upon his hearing of St. Ambrose, he by little and little falls off from his errors

BOOK VI – Milan

In Book 6 of Confessions Augustine further explores his time in Milan, focusing on the development of his relationships and the spiritual progress he made while grappling with his attachment to earthly desires.

During this period, Augustine’s mother, Monica, joins him in Milan. Monica is a devout Christian who has long prayed for her son’s conversion. She seeks advice from Bishop Ambrose, who assures her that Augustine will eventually find his way to Christianity. Her faith and prayers play a significant role in Augustine’s spiritual journey.

Augustine also forms friendships with fellow seekers of truth, who engage in discussions about philosophy, religion, and the nature of happiness. These friendships provide intellectual stimulation and foster a sense of community that helps him in his quest for understanding.

Despite his growing attraction to Christianity, Augustine continues to struggle with his desires, particularly lust and ambition. He is involved in a long-term relationship with a woman who has borne him a son, Adeodatus, but he is hesitant to commit to a life of celibacy, which he believes is necessary for genuine conversion.

Augustine’s attachment to material success and worldly ambitions also hinders his full acceptance of Christianity. He finds it difficult to reconcile his desire for professional achievement with the humility and self-denial that he perceives as essential to the Christian life.

In summary, Book 6 of Confessions portrays Augustine’s increasing engagement with Christian thought and the obstacles he faces as he moves closer to conversion. His struggles with lust, ambition, and his attachment to worldly success serve as the backdrop for the deepening of his relationships and his ongoing search for spiritual truth.

Book VI Synopsis

How St. Augustine was neither Manichee, nor good Catholic
His Mother is turned from her country Superstitions
The Employments and Studies of St. Ambrose
Of the Letter and the Spirit
Of the Authority and necessary Use of the Holy Bible
The Misery of the ambitious, shewn by the example of a Beggar
He dissuades Alypius from his excessive delight in the Circensian Games
Alypius is taken with a delight of the Sword-plays, which before he hated
Alypius was apprehended for suspicion of thievery
Of the great Integrity of Alypius, and of Nebridius’ coming
He deliberates what course of life he were best to take
A Contention between Alypius and Augustine, about Marriage and Single Life
Augustine lays out for a Wife
A new Plot is laid and broken
How his old Concubine goes away from him, and he gets another
Of the Immortality of the Soul

BOOK VII – Neoplatonism

In Book 7 of Confessions, Augustine recounts a crucial period in his intellectual and spiritual journey, as he delves deeper into Neoplatonism and comes closer to embracing Christianity. This book details the intellectual breakthroughs that bring him to the threshold of conversion, while also exploring his internal struggles and the obstacles he still needs to overcome.

Augustine’s engagement with Neoplatonism provides him with new philosophical perspectives that help clarify his understanding of the nature of God, evil, and the soul. Through Neoplatonism, he comes to see evil as a privation of good rather than an independent force, which helps resolve his long-standing struggles with the problem of evil. He also gains a deeper understanding of the immaterial nature of God and the human soul, allowing him to better appreciate the spiritual aspects of Christianity.

Simultaneously, Augustine becomes more familiar with the Bible, particularly the writings of Saint Paul, which resonate with his personal experiences and spiritual struggles. He finds solace in the message of divine grace, realizing that human beings are incapable of achieving salvation through their own efforts and need God’s assistance to overcome sin.

Despite these intellectual breakthroughs, Augustine still faces significant obstacles on his path to conversion. He continues to struggle with his desires, particularly lust, and finds it difficult to abandon his old habits and fully commit to a Christian lifestyle. He acknowledges his own internal conflict, expressing a longing for spiritual transformation, yet hesitating due to his attachment to worldly pleasures.

Book 7 of Confessions represents a pivotal stage in Augustine’s spiritual journey. As he grapples with Neoplatonic philosophy and deepens his understanding of Christian teachings, he is brought to the brink of conversion. However, his internal struggles and the lingering attachment to earthly desires still need to be overcome before he can fully embrace the Christian faith.

Book VII Synopsis

How rejecting corporeal Images, he began to know God to be incorporeal
Nebridius confutes the Manichees
Free Will is the cause of Sin
God cannot be compelled
He pursues his enquiries after the root of sin
Divinations made by the Mathematicians are vain
He is miserably tortured in his Enquiry after the Root of Evil
How the Mercy of God at length relieved him
What he found in some Books of the Platonists, agreeable to the Christian Doctrine
Divine things are more clearly discovered unto him
How Creatures are, and yet are not
All that is, is Good
All created Things praise God
To a sober Mind, none of God’s Creatures are displeasing
How there is truth and falsehood in the Creatures
All Things are good, though to some Things not fit
What things hinder us of God’s Knowledge
Only Christ is the Way to Salvation
What he thought of Christ’s Incarnation
Of divers Books of the Platonists
What he found in the Holy Scriptures, which was not in the Platonists

BOOK VIII – Conversion to Christianity

In Book 8 of Confessions, Augustine reaches the climactic point of his spiritual journey – his long-awaited conversion to Christianity. The book focuses on his internal struggle to overcome his remaining barriers to faith, as well as the crucial events and encounters that ultimately lead to his surrender to God’s grace.

Augustine continues to wrestle with his attachment to worldly desires, particularly lust, which prevents him from wholeheartedly embracing the Christian faith. Although he has intellectually accepted the truth of Christianity, his will remains divided, unable to break free from his past habits and fully commit to a new life.

Several key events and encounters in this book play a significant role in Augustine’s ultimate conversion:

The story of Victorinus, a prominent Roman rhetorician and philosopher who converted to Christianity late in life, serves as an inspiration for Augustine, demonstrating that it is possible to leave behind a life of worldly success for the sake of faith.
Augustine meets Simplicianus, a wise and experienced Christian who shares the story of the conversion of St. Ambrose’s mentor, the Neoplatonist philosopher Marius Victorinus. This story further emphasizes the transformative power of Christianity and its ability to transcend philosophical differences.
Augustine hears the account of the conversion of two officials in the imperial court, Ponticianus and his friends, who were deeply moved by the life of St. Antony, a renowned Egyptian hermit. Their transformation after reading the story of Antony challenges Augustine to reexamine his own priorities and confront the barriers that prevent him from embracing Christianity.

The culminating event in Augustine’s conversion occurs in a garden, where he hears the voice of a child singing, “Take up and read.” Interpreting this as a divine command, Augustine picks up a nearby copy of the Bible and reads a passage from St. Paul’s Letter to the Romans (13:13-14), which urges him to cast off his old ways and embrace the teachings of Christ. This powerful, transformative moment marks the beginning of Augustine’s new life as a Christian.

Book 8 of Confessions, captures the final stages of Augustine’s journey to Christianity, detailing the internal struggles, external influences, and divine interventions that culminate in his conversion. With this pivotal transformation, Augustine begins a new chapter in his life, dedicated to the pursuit of truth, wisdom, and holiness through the Christian faith.

Book VIII Synopsis

How being inflamed with the Love of Heavenly Things, he goes to Simplicianus
How Victorinus, the famous Orator, was converted
That God and his Angels do rejoice the more, at the conversion of a greater Sinner
Why we are more to rejoice in the Conversion of a great Sinner
What hindered his Conversion
Ponticianus relates the Life of St. Anthony
He was out of Love with himself upon this Story
What he did in the Garden
Why the Mind is so slow to Goodness
The Will of Man is various
The Combat in him betwixt the Spirit and the Flesh
How he was converted by a voice

BOOK IX – Baptism and Death of Augustine’s Mother

Book 9 of Confessions, marks the beginning of Augustine’s new life as a Christian, focusing on the immediate aftermath of his conversion, his baptism, and the death of his mother, Monica. This book explores themes of spiritual transformation, the power of grace, and the importance of community in his journey of faith.

Following his conversion in Book 8, Augustine decides to resign from his position as a teacher of rhetoric and dedicate his life to serving God. Together with his close friends and his son, Adeodatus, he forms a small Christian community where they devote themselves to prayer, study, and contemplation. This period of retreat allows Augustine to further deepen his understanding of Christianity and prepare for his upcoming baptism.

In Milan, Augustine, Adeodatus, and his close friend Alypius are baptized by Bishop Ambrose during the Easter Vigil. This significant event symbolizes the beginning of their new lives as Christians and their commitment to living according to the teachings of Christ.

One of the central events in Book 9 is the death of Augustine’s mother, Monica, which takes place shortly after his baptism. Augustine reflects on her life, faith, and the profound influence she had on his spiritual journey. He recounts a moving conversation they shared shortly before her death, in which they discussed the nature of eternal life and the joys of heaven. Monica’s passing prompts Augustine to contemplate the transient nature of earthly existence and the promise of eternal life in the presence of God.

In summary, Book 9 of Confessions, narrates the transformative experiences following Augustine’s conversion, including his retreat, baptism, and the death of his mother. This book emphasizes the importance of spiritual growth, the power of divine grace, and the role of supportive relationships in helping individuals navigate the challenges and joys of the Christian faith.

Book IX Synopsis

He praiseth God’s Goodness; and acknowledgeth his own wretchedness
He gives over his Teaching of Rhetoric
Verecundus lends them his Country House
What things he wrote with Nebridius
Ambrose directs him what Books to read
He is Baptized at Milan
A Persecution in the Church miraculously diverted
The Conversion of Euodius. A Discourse of his Mother
His Mother Monica’s carriage towards her Husband. A description of a rare Wife
Of a Conference he had with his Mother about the Kingdom of Heaven
Of the Extasy and Death of his Mother
He laments his Mother’s Death
He prayed for his dead Mother

BOOK X- Theology of Memory, Nature of Prayer, Self Examination

In Book 10 of Confessions, Augustine shifts from recounting his personal narrative to offering a profound meditation on memory, self-examination, and the nature of prayer. He examines his current relationship with God and reflects on the human condition, exploring the various dimensions of human desire and the longing for divine union.

Augustine delves into the concept of memory, marveling at its vastness and complexity. He acknowledges the crucial role of memory in shaping his understanding of God, as well as its function in retaining knowledge and experiences. Augustine sees memory as a repository of his past sins and errors, but also as a space where he can encounter God’s grace and presence.

As he engages in self-examination, Augustine reflects on the nature of temptation and the ongoing struggle against sin, even after his conversion. He acknowledges that while he has made progress in his spiritual life, he still faces the challenge of resisting various forms of desire and attachment, such as the temptations of the senses, pride, and the allure of worldly success. He emphasizes the necessity of God’s grace in overcoming these temptations and maintaining the pursuit of holiness.

Throughout Book 10, Augustine offers a series of prayers and reflections on his relationship with God. He seeks divine guidance and assistance in his quest for spiritual growth, acknowledging his reliance on God’s grace to transform his desires and align them with the divine will. Augustine also meditates on the ultimate goal of human existence, which he sees as a longing for union with God, a state of perfect happiness and eternal fulfillment.

In summary, Book 10 of Confessions represents a departure from the autobiographical narrative of the earlier books, focusing instead on a profound exploration of memory, self-examination, and prayer. Through these meditations, Augustine deepens his understanding of his relationship with God and the ongoing challenges he faces in his spiritual journey, revealing the complexity and dynamism of the human desire for divine union.

Book X Synopsis

The Confessions of the Heart
Secret Things are known unto God
The Confession of our ill deeds, what it helps us
Of the great Fruit of Confession
That Man knoweth not himself thoroughly: and knows not God but in a glass darkly
What God is, and how known
God is not to be found by any Ability in our Bodies
The Force of the Memory
The Memory of divers Sciences
Our Senses convey things into our Memory
The Forms of things are in the Soul
The Memory of Mathematicians
The Memory of Memory
How, when we are not glad, we call to mind things that have made us glad
We remember absent Things also
There is a Memory of Forgetfulness also
A threefold Power of Memory
Of the Remembrance
What Remembrance is
All Men desire Blessedness
We also remember what we never had
True Joy, is this blessed Life
A blessed life; what, and where it is
That the Memory containeth God too
In what degree of the Memory God is found
Whereabouts God is to be found
How God draws us to himself
The Misery of this Life
Our Hope is all in God
The deceitfulness of Dreams
The Temptation of Eating and Drinking
Of our Delight in Smelling
The Pleasures taken in Hearing
The Enticements coming in by the Eyes
Of our Curiosity in knowing
The Sin of Pride
Praise and Dispraise, how they move us
Virtue is endangered by Vain-glory
Of Self-love
His Striving against Sin
God and a Lie cannot stand together
Angels cannot be our Mediators
Christ only is the all-sufficient Intercessor

BOOK XI – Theological Inquiry on Time and Creation

In Book 11 of Confessions, Augustine transitions from an introspective examination of his own life to a broader inquiry into philosophical and theological questions. Focusing primarily on the nature of time and creation, Augustine reflects on the opening verses of the Book of Genesis and offers insights into God’s relationship with the temporal world.

Augustine begins by considering the nature of time, asking what it is and how it can be understood. He acknowledges the complexity and elusiveness of time, examining its properties and the difficulty humans have in grasping its true essence. He distinguishes between past, present, and future, asserting that only the present truly exists, while the past and future are mental constructs.

Turning to the subject of creation, Augustine contemplates the nature of God’s creative act as described in the Book of Genesis. He rejects the idea that God created the world in a temporal sense, as he believes that God exists outside of time, being eternal and unchanging. Instead, Augustine proposes that creation occurred simultaneously with time, both having their origin in God’s creative act.

Throughout his reflections on time and creation, Augustine emphasizes the limitations of human understanding when it comes to comprehending divine realities. He acknowledges that human language and concepts are insufficient to fully grasp the nature of God and the mysteries of creation.

Book 11 of Confessions, marks a significant shift in focus, as Augustine moves from a personal exploration of his own experiences to a broader philosophical and theological inquiry. By contemplating the nature of time and creation, Augustine deepens his understanding of God’s relationship with the temporal world and underscores the limitations of human knowledge in the face of divine mysteries.

Book XI Synopsis

Why we confess unto God who knows all
He sueth to be delivered from his Sins and Errors, and to be guided unto the true Knowledge
He desires to understand the Holy Scriptures
The Creatures proclaim God to be their Creator
How the World was made of Nothing
He disputes curiously what manner of Word the World was created by
The Son of God is the Word co-eternal with the Father
The Word of God is our Teacher in all
How the Word of God speaketh unto the Heart
God’s Will knows no Beginning
God’s Eternity not to be measured by the parts of Time
What God did before the Creation of the World
That before those Times which God created, there was no Time
Of the Nature and three Differences of Time
No Time can be said to be long
Of our measuring of Times
Where Time past, and to come, now are
How Times past, and to come, are now present
He demands of God, how future Things be foreknown
These three differences of Times, how they are to be called
How Time may be measured
He begs of God the Resolution of a Difficulty
He clears this Question, what Time is
Time it is, by which we measure the Motion of Bodies
He prayed again
The Measuring of the Feet and Syllables of a Verse
He begins to resolve the former question, how we measure time
We measure Times in our Mind
How the Mind lengthens out itself
He goes on in the same Discourse
How God is known, and how the creature

BOOK XII – Theology of Creation, Scripture, and Tradition

In Book 12 of Confessions, Augustine continues his in-depth exploration of the Book of Genesis, focusing on the interpretation of Scripture and the theological implications of creation. He emphasizes the importance of humility and charity in approaching the study of Scripture and delves into various perspectives on the creation narrative.

Augustine acknowledges that Scripture can be interpreted in multiple ways, stressing the importance of embracing an attitude of humility and openness when engaging with the text. He suggests that different interpretations can be valid, as long as they do not contradict essential Christian teachings and are guided by the principles of charity and love.

To illustrate the range of interpretations, Augustine examines various understandings of the creation story in Genesis, particularly the phrase “In the beginning, God created the heavens and the earth” (Genesis 1:1). He engages with multiple perspectives, including those that interpret creation as occurring in a literal sequence of days, as well as those that view it allegorically or symbolically.

Through his analysis of creation, Augustine emphasizes the distinction between God’s eternal, unchanging nature and the mutable nature of the created world. He asserts that all things find their origin in God, who transcends time and created everything from nothing (creatio ex nihilo). Augustine also explores the nature of God’s Word (the Logos) and its role in the creation process, recognizing that the Word is the means through which all things were made.

Book 12 of Confessions extends Augustine’s theological inquiry into the interpretation of Scripture and the nature of creation. His emphasis on humility, charity, and intellectual openness when approaching the Bible, as well as his exploration of various interpretations of the Genesis narrative, demonstrate the depth and complexity of Augustine’s thought and the richness of the Christian intellectual tradition.

Book XII Synopsis

’Tis very difficult to find out the Truth
That the Heaven we see is but Earth, in respect of the Heaven of Heavens, which we see not
Of the Darkness upon the Face of the Deep
Of the Chaos, and what Moses called it
That this Chaos is hard to conceive
What himself sometimes thought of it
Heaven is greater than Earth
The Chaos was created out of nothing, and out of that, all things
What that Heaven of Heavens is
His Desire to understand the Scriptures
What he learned of God
Of two Creatures not within Compass of Time
The Nature of the Heaven of Heavens described
The Depth of Holy Scripture
The Difference betwixt the Creator and the creatures. Some Discourses about the Heaven of Heavens
Against such as contradict divine Truth: and of his own Delight in it
What the Names of Heaven and Earth signify
Divers Expositors may understand one Text several Ways
Of some particular apparent Truths
He interprets Genesis 1:1 otherwise
These Words, the Earth was void &c., diversely understood
That the waters are also contained under the names of Heaven and Earth
In interpreting of Holy Scripture, Truth is to be sought with a charitable Construction
The Scripture is true, though we understand not the uttermost Scope or Depth of it
We are not to break Charity about a different Exposition of Scripture
What Style was fit to write the Scriptures in
The best Drawing at the fountain
How diversely this Scripture is understood by others
How many Ways a Thing may be said to be First
The Scriptures are to be searched, with honorable Respect unto the Penman
Truth is so to be received; whoever speaks it
He prays to obtain right Meaning

BOOK XIII – Theology of Creation, Trinity, and Spiritual Formation

In Book 13, the final book of Confessions, Augustine continues his reflections on the Book of Genesis, focusing on the creation narrative, the nature of the Holy Trinity, and the process of spiritual renewal. Augustine also meditates on the role of Scripture and the Church in guiding individuals on their path to God.

Augustine explores the meaning behind the seven days of creation, offering both literal and allegorical interpretations. He sees the days as representing various stages in the spiritual development of human beings as they progress toward union with God. In his analysis, Augustine emphasizes the role of divine grace in transforming the human soul and enabling spiritual growth.

Throughout his reflections on Genesis, Augustine consistently refers to the doctrine of the Holy Trinity, contemplating the roles of the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit in creation and the process of redemption. He sees the Trinity as the source of all being, goodness, and truth, and highlights its importance in understanding the nature of God and the dynamics of the Christian faith.

Augustine also meditates on the Church as the body of Christ, emphasizing the importance of community and the role of the Church in nurturing spiritual growth. He views the Church as a vehicle through which individuals can receive divine grace, participate in the sacraments, and grow closer to God.

In the concluding passages of Confessions, Augustine offers a prayer of gratitude and praise to God, acknowledging the transformative power of divine grace in his own life and the lives of others. He reaffirms his commitment to a life of faith, seeking to deepen his relationship with God and share the insights he has gained throughout his spiritual journey. In summary, Book 13 of “Confessions” brings Augustine’s work to a close by reflecting on the creation narrative, the Holy Trinity, and the process of spiritual renewal. His emphasis on the importance of Scripture, the Church, and the role of divine grace in guiding individuals toward union with God provides a fitting conclusion to this deeply personal and profoundly theological work.

Book XIII Synopsis

He called upon God
Of the Creatures’ dependency upon their Creator
All is of the Grace of God
God needs not the Creatures, but they Him
His Confession of the Blessed Trinity
Of the Spirit’s moving upon the Waters
Of the Effect or Working of the Holy Spirit
How God’s Spirit cherishes feeble Souls
Why the Spirit only moved upon the Waters
All is of God’s Gift
Of some Impressions or Resemblances of the Blessed Trinity, that be in man
The Water in Baptism is effectual by the Holy Spirit
His devout longing after God
Our Misery is comforted by Faith and Hope
By the word Firmament, is the Scripture meant
God is unchangeable

Plato’s Republic

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The purpose of reading Plato’s Republic is to develop a deeper and richer understanding of Augustine’s The City of God. Before beginning to fully absorb The City of God, Plato’s Republic, written in 375 B.C., was a treatise about the city of Man as a secular and philosophical work concerning justice and the formation of social order (with serious moral flaws concerning slavery, prostitution, and the eradication of the family unit). It is widely understood as consisting of a rationale for the primitive framework of Western civilization. Much later, by comparison, Augustine wrote about the city of God as a theology to draw a contrast against the deeply corrupt, vain, and futile propositions of Plato’s Greek philosophical thought in the Republic.

While Plato’s work casts Socrates as the primary conversational figure throughout the book, he acknowledges the existence and necessity of the soul, but not as from Creator YHWH. Instead, he attributes too much to “the gods” as if they existed as such or as if there was an obligation to learn from them or attribute to them human well-being. Morality wasn’t an imperative concerning an obligation to daily living as much as the limited group of virtues attributed to city guardians. Guardians were a class of people set up in Plato’s Socratic dialog to raise an order of people that would defend the city from becoming a “city of pigs” or a “fevered state” to the demise of personal and social well-being. The prime virtues of the guardians were justice, courage, temperance, and wisdom. Absent were the other virtues of the Old Testament Tenak, or at the very least, they were subordinate.

Characters of Republic

Overall, the book is an elaborate and deep treatise on the development of the individual, the State, and social interests around health, security, commerce, and justice. Its presuppositions largely rest upon presuppositions of Greek mythology that form human reason among philosophers who were captive to the cultural conditions of the time. As a well-known ancient philosopher, Plato set up the treatise around a fictional conversation between characters he developed throughout the dialog. The Cliff notes of each character in the Republic are as follows:

Socrates

The major speaker in the dialogue. His name means “master of life,” and it is he who advances all of Plato’s theories. Note that the Socrates who speaks in Plato’s Dialogues is not, of course, the man, Socrates. The Socrates of the Dialogues serves as a persona (a mask, or fictive character) for Plato himself, who hoped, perhaps, thus to grant a kind of immortality to his teacher.

Cephalus

A wealthy and retired old businessman, head of a business family. Socrates has known him a long time and admires him. Cephalus and Socrates initiate the dialogue, which begins with a casual friendly conversation. Cephalus’ significance in the dialogue is that he exemplifies the seasoned experienced man who, though not a philosopher, has tried to live the good life and to adopt the virtues he has heard about. His remarks to Socrates at the beginning of the dialogue foreshadow topics that Socrates will develop later in the dialogue.

Polemarchus

Cephalus’ son and the pupil of Lysias, a teacher of rhetoric. It is Polemarchus (whose name means “war-lord” or “general”) who instigates the flyting with Socrates during the festivities for the “goddess” Bendis before the dialogue proper begins. Polemarchus, perhaps true to his name, is very laconic in the dialogue, and he seems impatient with his “role” in it, seems resigned to his having “inherited” the responsibilities of host after Cephalus quits the conversation.

Thrasymachus

A sophist, a teacher of specious rhetoric. His name means “rash fighter.” Socrates seems particularly eager to engage Thrasymachus’ arguments in the dialogue, and the two nearly reduce a philosophical dialogue to a petty quarrel.

Adeimantus

An older half-brother of Plato. His name means “sooth-singer,” and in the dialogue, he is a young man and something of a poet.

Glaucon

Also a half-brother of Plato. His name means “owl” or “gleaming eyes,” and in the dialogue, he is a young man.

It is useful to understand a summary before reading through Republic as a preview of the dialog as a threaded conversation. That way, there’s a set of expectations and structure for the dialog to accompany the reading. There is a lot of dense subject matter to track the further the readers get, so Wikipedia’s summary offers a reasonable outline. For clarity and concise review, I heavily edited and abbreviated the Wikipedia summary to what Plato intended and what the translator rendered as follows:

Books I – II: Aging, Love and the Definitions of Justice

While visiting the city of Piraeus with Glaucon, Polemarchus tells Socrates to join him. They eventually end up at Polemarchus’ house, where Socrates encounters Polemarchus’ father, Cephalus.

In his first philosophical conversation with the group members, Socrates gets into a conversation with Cephalus. The first real philosophical question Plato poses in the book is when Socrates asks, “is life painful at that age, or what report do you make of it?” when speaking to Cephalus, who is older than Socrates.

Plato is seemingly interested in aging and love and in what effect they will have on him. It is a brief but salient point and the book’s first real discussion. Cephalus answers that many are unhappy about old age because they miss their youth. But he then says he has met other men who do not feel this way. Cephalus mentions a story when he was in the presence of one of these men named Sophocles, and he was asked, “how do you feel about love, Sophocles? Are you still capable of it? To which he replied, Hush! If you please: to my great delight, I have escaped from it. I feel as if I have escaped from a frantic and savage master.” Cephalus states that he feels that Sophocles has spoken wisely and that “unquestionably for old age brings us profound repose and freedom from this (love) and other passions. When the appetites have abated, and their force is diminished, the description of Sophocles is perfectly realized. It is like being delivered from a multitude of furious masters.” This seems to set Socrates at ease, and the conversations move on to discuss Justice.

Plato seems to be asking the question about both “love” (strong attachment and affection) and libido (sexual desire) in this section. Plato is indicating that as we age or enter the “threshold of age” (age above 65), we can escape/release/detach from our passions and desires (those frantic and savage masters) and can live contentedly in repose.

Socrates asks Cephalus, Polemarchus, and Thrasymachus for their definitions of justice. Cephalus defines justice as giving what is owed. Polemarchus says justice is “the art which gives good to friends and evil to enemies.” Thrasymachus proclaims, “justice is nothing else than the interest of the stronger.” Socrates refutes each in turn and says it is advantageous to be just and disadvantageous to be unjust. The first book ends in aporia concerning the essence of justice. In rhetoric, aporia is the expression of doubt. Accordingly, the meaning of justice was left as an irresolvable internal contradiction or logical disjunction in the text.

The first book proposes two definitions of justice but is deemed inadequate. Returning debts owed, and helping friends while harming enemies, are commonsense definitions of justice that, Socrates shows, are inadequate and thus lack the universality demanded of a definition. He does not completely reject them, for each expresses a commonsense notion that Socrates incorporates in books II through V.

At the end of Book I, Socrates agrees with Polemarchus that justice includes helping friends, but says the just man would never harm another. Thrasymachus believes that Socrates has done those present an injustice by saying this and attacks his character and reputation, partly because he suspects that Socrates does not believe that harming enemies is unjust. Thrasymachus gives his understanding of justice and injustice as “justice is what is advantageous to the stronger, while injustice is to one’s own profit and advantage”. Socrates asks whether the ruler who makes a mistake by making a law that lessens their well-being is still a just ruler according to that definition. Thrasymachus agrees that no just ruler would make such an error. This agreement allows Socrates to undermine Thrasymachus’ definition by comparing rulers to people of various professions. Thrasymachus consents to Socrates’ assertion that an artist is someone who does his job well, and is a practioner of some art, which allows him to complete the job well. In so doing Socrates gets Thrasymachus to admit that rulers who enact a law that does not benefit them firstly, are in the precise sense not rulers. Thrasymachus gives up, and falls silent. Socrates has trapped Thrasymachus into admitting that the strong man who makes a mistake is not strong in the precise sense, and that some type of knowledge is required to rule perfectly. However, it is far from a satisfactory definition of justice.

Book II – The Ring of Gyges

Socrates believes he has answered Thrasymachus and is done with the justice discussion. Socrates’ young companions, Glaucon and Adeimantus, continue to further the discussion. Glaucon argues that the origin of justice was first in social contracts aimed at preventing one from suffering injustice, unable to take revenge, second that all those who practice justice do so unwillingly and out of fear of punishment, and third that the life of the unjust man is far more satisfactory than that of the just man. Glaucon would like Socrates to prove that justice is desirable and belongs to the highest class of desirable things: those desired both for their own sake and their consequences.

To demonstrate the problem, he tells the story of Gyges, who – with the help of a ring that turns him invisible – achieves great advantages for himself by committing injustices. The only reason that men are just and praise justice is out of fear of punishment. The law is a product of compromise between individuals who agree not to treat others unjustly if others do the same. Glaucon says that if people had the power to withhold justice without fear of punishment, they would. Glaucon uses this argument to challenge Socrates to defend the position that a just life is better than an unjust life. Adeimantus adds to Glaucon’s speech the charge that men are only just for the results that justice brings: fortune, honor, and reputation. Adeimantus challenges Socrates to prove that behaving justly is worth something in and of itself, not only as a means to an end.

After Glaucon speaks his views, Adeimantus adds that, in this thought experiment, the unjust should not fear divine judgment since the very poets who wrote about such judgment also wrote that the “gods” would grant forgiveness to those who made religious sacrifices. Adeimantus demonstrates his reason by drawing two detailed portraits, an unjust man who grew wealthy by injustice, devoting a percentage of this gain to religion, thus rendering him innocent in the eyes of the “gods.”

The Ring of Gyges is a story from Greek mythology that explores the themes of morality, power, and the corrupting influence of absolute power. In the story, Gyges, a shepherd, finds a ring that grants him the power of invisibility. Using the power of the ring, Gyges becomes a powerful king and is able to fulfill all of his desires without consequences.

However, as time goes on, Gyges becomes increasingly corrupt and immoral, using his power to engage in illicit activities and to gain more power. The story ultimately raises the question of whether absolute power corrupts absolutely and whether individuals can remain moral and just when given unlimited power.

The story of The Ring of Gyges has had a significant impact on Western philosophy and literature, inspiring works such as Plato’s Republic and J.R.R. Tolkien’s The Lord of the Rings. The story continues to be discussed and analyzed in contemporary debates about the nature of power and morality.

Books II – IV: The City and the Soul

Socrates suggests that they use the city as an image to seek how justice comes to be in the soul of an individual. After attributing the origin of society to the individual not being self-sufficient and having many needs which he cannot supply himself, they describe the city’s development. Socrates first describes the “healthy state,” but Glaucon considers this hardly different than “a city of pigs.” Socrates then describes the luxurious city, which he calls “a fevered state.” This requires a guardian class to defend and attack on its account.

This begins a discussion concerning the type of education that should be given to these guardians in their early years, including the topic of appropriate stories. They conclude that stories that ascribe evil to the gods are untrue and should not be taught. They suggest guardians should be educated in these four cardinal virtues: wisdom, courage, justice, and temperance. They also suggest that the second part of the guardians’ education should be in gymnastics. With physical training, they can live without needing frequent medical attention: physical training will help prevent illness and weakness. Socrates asserts that both male and female guardians be given the same education, that all wives and children be shared, and that they be prohibited from owning private property.

In the fictional tale known as the myth or parable of the metals, Socrates presents the Noble Lie (γενναῖον ψεῦδος, gennaion pseudos) to explain the origin of the three social classes. Socrates proposes and claims that if the people believed “this myth…[it] would have a good effect, making them more inclined to care for the State and one another.” Socrates assumes each person will be happy engaging in the occupation that suits them best. The flawed assertion follows: if the city is happy, then individuals are happy. In the physical education and diet of the guardians, the emphasis is on moderation since both poverty and excessive wealth will corrupt them (422a). Without controlling their education, the city cannot control future rulers. Socrates says it is pointless to worry over specific laws, like contracts, since proper education ensures lawful behavior, and poor education causes lawlessness (425a–425c).

Socrates searches for wisdom, courage, and temperance in the city on the grounds that justice will be easier to discern in what remains (427e). They find wisdom among the guardian rulers, courage among the guardian warriors (or auxiliaries), and temperance among all city classes in agreeing about who should rule and who should be ruled. Finally, Socrates defines justice in the city as the State where each class performs only its own work, not meddling in the work of the other classes (433b).

The virtues discovered in the city are then sought in the individual soul. For this purpose, Socrates creates an analogy between the parts of the city and the soul (the city–soul analogy). He argues that psychological conflict points to a divided soul since a completely unified soul could not behave in opposite ways towards the same object, at the same time, and in the same respect (436b). He gives examples of possible conflicts between the rational, spirited, and appetitive parts of the soul, corresponding to the city’s rulers, auxiliaries, and producing classes. Having established the tripartite soul, Socrates defines the virtues of the individual. A person is wise if he is ruled by the part of the soul that knows “what is beneficial for each part and for the whole,” courageous if his spirited part “preserves in the midst of pleasures and pains” the decisions reached by the rational part, and temperate if the three parts agree that the rational part lead (442c–d). They are just if each part of the soul attends to its function and not the function of another. It follows from this definition that one cannot be just if one doesn’t have the other cardinal virtues.

Books V – VI: The Ship of State

Socrates, having to his satisfaction, defined the just constitution of both city and psyche, moves to elaborate upon the four unjust constitutions of these. Adeimantus and Polemarchus interrupt, asking Socrates instead first to explain how the sharing of wives and children in the guardian class is to be defined and legislated, a theme first touched on in Book III. Socrates is overwhelmed by their request, categorizing it as three “waves” of attack against which his reasoning must stand firm. These three waves challenge Socrates’ claims that male and female guardians should receive the same education and that the State should regulate human reproduction. All offspring should be ignorant of their actual biological parents. By this State-regulated means of reproduction and child development, such a city and its corresponding philosopher-king could actually come to be in the real world.

In Books V–VII, the abolition of riches among the guardian class leads to the abandonment of the family as it is defined and ordained by God, and as such, no child may know his or her parents, and the parents may not know their own children. Socrates tells a tale that is the “allegory of the good government.” The rulers assemble couples for reproduction based on breeding criteria. Thus, a stable population is achieved through eugenics, and social cohesion is projected to be high because familial links are extended to everyone in the city. In other words, the guardian class consists of drones with a hive mentality. Moreover, the education of the youth is such that they are taught of only works of writing that encourage them to improve themselves for the state’s good, and envision (the) god(s) as entirely good, just, and the author(s) of only that which is good.

Socrates argues that in the ideal city, a true philosopher with an understanding of forms will facilitate the harmonious cooperation of all the citizens of the city—the governance of a city-state is likened to the command of a ship, the Ship of State. This philosopher-king must be intelligent, reliable, and willing to lead a simple life. However, these qualities are rarely manifested on their own, so they must be encouraged through education and studying the Good.

Books VI–VII: Allegories of the Sun, Divided Line, and Cave

The Allegory of the Cave primarily depicts Plato’s distinction between the world of appearances and the ‘real’ world of the Forms. Just as visible objects must be illuminated in order to be seen, so must also be true of objects of knowledge if light is cast on them.

Plato imagines a group of people who have lived their entire lives as prisoners, chained to the wall of a cave underground so they cannot see the outside world behind them. However, a constant flame illuminates various moving objects outside, which are silhouetted on the cave wall visible to the prisoners. Through having no other experience of reality, these prisoners ascribe forms to these shadows, such as either “dog” or “cat.” Plato then goes on to explain how the philosopher is akin to a prisoner who is fr“ed ”rom “he c”ve. The light initially blinds the prisoner, but when he adjusts to the brightness, he sees the fire and the statues and how they caused the images witnessed inside the cave. He sees that the fire and statues in the cave are just copies of the real objects, merely imitations. This is analogous to the Forms. What we see from day to day are merely appearances, reflections of the Forms. The philosopher, however, will not be deceived by the shadows and will hence be able to see the ‘real’ world, the world above that of appearances; the philosopher will gain knowledge of things in themselves. At the end of this allegory, Plato asserts that it is the philosopher’s burden to reenter the cave. Those who have seen the ideal world, he says, have the duty to educate those in the material world. Since the philosopher recognizes what is truly good, only he is fit to rule society, according to Plato.

Books VIII–IX: Plato’s five regimes

In Books VIII–IX stands Plato’s criticism of the forms of government. Plato categorized governments into five types of regimes: aristocracy, timocracy, oligarchy, democracy, and tyranny.

The starting point is an imagined, alternate aristocracy (ruled by a philosopher-king); a just government ruled by a philosopher-king, dominated by the wisdom-loving element. Aristocracy degenerates into timocracy when, due to miscalculation on the part of its governing class, the next generation includes persons of an inferior nature, inclined not just to cultivate virtues but also to produce wealth. In a timocracy, governors will apply great effort in gymnastics and the arts of war, as well as the virtue of courage that pertains to them. As the emphasis on honor is compromised by wealth accumulation, it is replaced by oligarchy. The oligarchic government is dominated by the desiring element, in which the rich are the ruling class. Oligarchs do, however, value at least one virtue, that of temperance and moderation—not out of an ethical principle or spiritual concern, but because by dominating wasteful tendencies, they succeed in accumulating money. As this socioeconomic divide grows, so do tensions between social classes. From the conflicts arising from such tensions, the poor majority overthrew the wealthy minority, and democracy replaces the oligarchy preceding it. In a democracy, the lower class grows bigger and bigger. A visually appealing demagogue is soon lifted up to protect the interests of the lower class, who can exploit them to take power in order to maintain order. Democracy then degenerates into tyranny where no one has discipline, and society exists in chaos. In a tyrannical government, the city is enslaved to the tyrant, who uses his guards to remove the best social elements and individuals from the city to retain power (since they pose a threat) while leaving the worst. He will also provoke warfare to consolidate his position as leader. In this way, tyranny is the most unjust regime of all.

In parallel, Socrates considers the individual or soul corresponding to each of these regimes. He describes how an aristocrat may become weak or detached from political and material affluence, and how his son will respond to this by becoming overly ambitious. The timocrat, in turn, may be defeated by the courts or vested interests; his son responds by accumulating wealth in order to gain power in society and defend himself against the same predicament, thereby becoming an oligarch. The oligarch’s son will grow up with wealth without having to practice thrift or stinginess and will be tempted and overwhelmed by his desires so that he becomes democratic, valuing freedom above all. The democratic man is torn between tyrannical passions and oligarchic discipline and ends up in the middle ground: valuing all good and bad desires. The tyrant will be tempted like the democrat but without an upbringing in discipline or moderation to restrain him. Therefore, his most base desires and wildest passions overwhelm him, and he becomes driven by lust, using force and fraud to take whatever he wants. The tyrant is both a slave to his lusts and a master to whomever he can enslave. Socrates points out that the human tendency to be corrupted by power leads down the road to timocracy, oligarchy, democracy, and tyranny.

From this, he concludes that ruling should be left to philosophers, who are the most just and, therefore, least susceptible to corruption. This “good city” is depicted as being governed by philosopher-kings, disinterested persons who rule not for their personal enjoyment but for the good of the city-state (polis). The philosophers have seen the “Forms” and therefore think they know what is good. They think they understand the corrupting effect of greed and own no property and receive no salary.

Book X: Myth of Er

The Myth of Er is a story from Plato’s Republic that describes the journey of a soldier named Er who dies in battle and returns to life to tell of his experience in the afterlife. According to the story, after death, souls are judged and sent to either heaven or hell depending on their actions in life.

Er observes that the souls who had lived just lives were rewarded with eternal happiness in the heavens, while those who had lived unjust lives were punished in hell. However, he also notes that some souls were given a choice to be reincarnated and to live another life on Earth.

The story ultimately raises questions about the nature of justice, morality, and the afterlife. It also emphasizes the importance of living a just and moral life, as one’s actions in life will determine their fate in the afterlife.

The Myth of Er has had a significant impact on Western philosophy and literature, inspiring works such as Dante’s Divine Comedy and Milton’s Paradise Lost. It continues to be discussed and analyzed in contemporary debates about morality, the afterlife, and the nature of justice.

Concluding a theme brought up most explicitly in the Analogies of the Sun and Divided Line in Book VI, Socrates finally rejects any form of imitative art and concludes that such artists have no place in the just city. He continues to argue for the immortality of the psyche and even espouses a theory of reincarnation. He finishes by detailing the rewards of being just, both in this life and the next. Artists create things but are only different copies of the original idea. “And whenever anyone informs us that he has found a man who knows all the arts, and all things else that anybody knows, and every single thing with a higher degree of accuracy than any other man—whoever tells us this, I think that we can only imagine to be a simple creature who is likely to have been deceived by some wizard or actor whom he met, and whom he thought all-knowing, because he himself was unable to analyze the nature of knowledge and ignorance and imitation.”

And the same object appears straight when looked at out of the water, and crooked when in the water; and the concave becomes convex, owing to the illusion about colours to which the sight is liable. Thus every sort of confusion is revealed within us; and this is that weakness of the human mind on which the art of conjuring and deceiving by light and shadow and other ingenious devices imposes, having an effect upon us like magic.

He speaks about illusions and confusion. Things can look very similar, but be different in reality. Because we are human, at times we cannot tell the difference between the two.

And does not the same hold also of the ridiculous? There are jests which you would be ashamed to make yourself, and yet on the comic stage, or indeed in private, when you hear them, you are greatly amused by them, and are not at all disgusted at their unseemliness—the case of pity is repeated—there is a principle in human nature which is disposed to raise a laugh, and this which you once restrained by reason, because you were afraid of being thought a buffoon, is now let out again; and having stimulated the risible faculty at the theatre, you are betrayed unconsciously to yourself into playing the comic poet at home.

With all of us, we may approve of something, as long we are not directly involved with it. If we joke about it, we are supporting it.

Quite true, he said. And the same may be said of lust and anger and all the other affections, of desire and pain and pleasure, which are held to be inseparable from every action—in all of them poetry feeds and waters the passions instead of drying them up; she lets them rule, although they ought to be controlled, if mankind are ever to increase in happiness and virtue.

Sometimes we let our passions rule our actions or way of thinking, although they should be controlled, so that we can increase our happiness.

Einstein: His Life and Universe

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The biography Einstein: His Life and Universe, written by Walter Isaacson, is about the life story of a morally flawed genius. In some respects, the heights of his genius are matched by the depths of his personal morality and naivete around social, economic, and regulatory policies. The following thoughts are what stood out in the reading of Isaacson’s written biography of Einstein.

The book’s length was about 600 pages from the printed copy (not including the endnotes and source material; ISBN 978-0743264747, 704 pages). The author provided many citations accompanying numerous interpreted facts woven together throughout the narrative. In addition to facts that were brought together in a way that traced the life of Albert Einstein (March 14th,1879 – April 18th, 1955), the author wrote of the numerous characters throughout the life of the theoretical physicist. Many people were involved in Einstein’s life, but the chosen figures developed within the biography were those who were integral to Einstein’s life. Einstein’s family, friends, coworkers, fellow professors, researchers, students, and government allies (including adversaries) were among those who were prominent throughout his life, as narrated within the book. As the entire book is sequentially lined up by significant events and essential intervals of achievement, status, and crisis, the life of Einstein was a mixed account of inspiration, wonder, amazement, cruelty, contention, and disappointment. This biography of Einstein is comprehensive, and it covers numerous points of interest spanning many years from his childhood all the way to the day of his death.

Several important categories of interest in the life of Einstein help to organize an understanding of what he was about, what he accomplished, and what he wrought during the time he was alive. Those categories were family, career, professorships, theories of general relativity, quantum mechanics, Nazi Germany, nuclear weapons, and his social life. Through all of Einstein’s scientific achievements, he challenged conventional academic thought about classical physics to eventually reset how everyday reality is perceived at a macro and micro scale. He upended the conventional understanding of causality and the relationships physical and theoretical objects have with one another. How scientists thought about matter, energy, time, gravity, mass, light, frames of reference, kinetics, momentum, inertia, and relevant scientific subjects were challenged against long-held historical assumptions.

Einstein pioneered the science that involved a change from absolute frames of reference to relativity concerning objects that reside in physical existence. Whether on a planetary scale or from how matter, time, and light interact, there are changes in behavior among objects having more precisely described states of existence from sources of causality or empirically observable conditions. Einstein’s breakthroughs came more from his imagination, where he creatively produced theories vetted through rigorous mathematical work or interpersonal engagement among peers. Far more often, he worked alone and originated thought experiments to flesh out concrete rationale supported by mathematical and statistical modeling. During his time, Einstein creatively imagined concepts within our day-to-day physical dimensions of existence to originate theories of elemental characteristics and behaviors of particles, quanta, and wave fields of mass and energy. To include the quantum theory of light, where photon particles jump from one state to another, and the existence of atoms to include their structure and behaviors (i.e., Brownian motion).

Within the book, Einstein makes various references to God, but not in a personal, reverent way to indicate devotion or faith. He has spent substantial time with religious organizations within Judaism, Catholicism, and among protestants (Presbyterians), but he did not share their spiritual views or beliefs. While he referred to God as Creator to support his theories (e.g., “God does not play dice”), he did not believe in God as He revealed Himself throughout history, scripture, or by corroborating witness records across centuries. While Jewish, Einstein did not live a life of faith according to Torah or scripture as a whole. He was more aligned with Jewish people regarding tradition and cultural endeavor. Einstein mentally acceded to the existence of God and His evident work, but not as God to know through spiritual means. To Einstein, existence was only what is real within the present universe, whether at a galactical scale, sub-atomic scale or by day-to-day observable facts. Einstein did not accept reality beyond the present universe of existence, as suggested by quantum mechanics.

Overall, Einstein’s life was of overwhelming significance. And the immense bearing he has had on the course of humanity cannot be overstated, not only in terms of historical, scientific theories leading to astonishing discoveries but toward trajectories of further scientific advancement. He was the father of the theoretical sciences making nuclear weapons possible, leading to an enormous death toll in Japan during World War II. While he wasn’t directly involved in developing the atomic bomb, he was the leading figure responsible for its theoretical framework. During a time of heightened risk that the Nazi regime would discover nuclear fission and the splitting of the nucleus of an atom to produce weapon capabilities, Einstein only peripherally assisted scientists and engineers with the design and methods of producing an atomic bomb in the United States. As he warned the U.S. government about the threat of its development through ongoing experiments in Germany, he was the urgent and critical voice that sounded the alarm before it could be used against the U.S. or its allies during the war. While he didn’t have the security clearance for direct involvement in U.S. nuclear weapons development due to his Russian contacts, he did considerable work to help scientists overcome technical issues without knowing the specifics of secret research and development.

After Einstein’s academic and scientific achievements, he applied himself to humanitarian endeavors in the form of policy advocacy. He sought to blunt the possibility of an arms race among countries by appointing a global authority over nuclear weapons proliferation where all nations would participate in lessening the likelihood of further weapons development and production. While he understood that some nations were not trustworthy to disarm and entrust the global authority among all other nations, he insisted the U.S. needed to build up its arsenal for counter-defensive measures and deterrence. Throughout the reading of the biography, there were additional areas of epic naivete. Aside from the naive confidence that nations would voluntarily disarm themselves, Einstein was a war passivist (“war resistor” in his words) and a socialist. His ideas about economic development, growth, and prosperity revealed an absence of equitability and the scarcity of resources from a macro perspective, including momentary or fiscal policies.

While Einstein was cognitively intelligent and demonstrated a cunning ability to outmaneuver his peers and adversaries, the theoretical and scientific conditions under which the cosmos are understood, and nuclear weapons were formed remain the most significant extent of his legacy. As there is an overall favorable impression Western society has about Einstein due to his achievements, theories, and scientific discoveries, he often exuded a loveable sensibility about himself. However, he did, in fact, abandon his wife, Mileva Marić, to marry his cousin Elsa Einstein. He had three children through his marriage to Mileva, and he abandoned them all with continued financial and moral support as they made their way on their own through life. Lieserl Einstein, Hans Albert Einstein, and Eduard Einstein were his children who grew up without the father they deserved. While he had the opportunity, he never saw Lieserl during her early formative life. She was born out of wedlock and died early in life (1902 – 1903). Albert Einstein was not there with Mileva while she experienced the loss of their firstborn. Eduard Einstein later developed schizophrenia in his late teens or early twenties. Einstein Sr. wasn’t there to support Eduard either while he struggled through life and was committed to a sanitarium. While they wrote to each other later in life, they never had a father-son relationship as anyone should expect. Mileva was left alone to deal with the circumstances as Einstein lived in prosperity, popularity, and celebrity with Elsa and her daughters.

Einstein’s discoveries and accomplishments were undone by his cruelty and abandonment of his family. He left his native country of Germany by necessity to become a U.S. citizen. Albert abandoned his Jewish name (Abraham Einstein to become Albert Einstein), his country of Germany (Nazi extermination of Jews throughout Europe), and his family (he married his cousin Elsa and supported her daughters, Margot and Ilse, from another relationship). Einstein’s family life was a disaster and thoroughly repugnant, as his wife and children wanted him and his loyalty. They didn’t deserve what happened to them during separation.

This book has changed my view of Einstein. Even after corroborating events and circumstances to validate what occurred in his life, he was simply an accomplished physicist and nothing more. Highly naïve and a bit of an absent-minded professor who often lost his keys, Einstein didn’t live out his rightful family obligations. The life of Einstein was a failure when it came to his original family, who loved him. Moreover, he held no meaningful view of who his Creator is. The God of the Universe that he studied was unknown to Einstein. He was simply a theoretical scientist of exceptional merit, and that’s it. The utility of Einstein’s work will have lasting significance as further scientific advancements are made.

Errata to Wormwood

By on in Literary

This post is a book review of C.S. Lewis’s The Screwtape Letters. To track and understand what Lewis wrote from the perspective of Screwtape in his correspondence to Wormwood, I wrote these summaries in the way that Lewis cast Screwtape. Yet, in the same tone, meaning, voice, and manner to get a slight glimpse of what he had to say. Letter after letter, these are summaries as a review method to understand how they work together and what they intend to do to the reader. This is a role play by prose to get a sense of disgust and alarm that we are meant to understand. The consistent thread among all Screwtape’s letters to Wormwood constitutes areas of attack on the whole person. Whether toward virtue, interests, or values, every area of a person’s life is subject to constant animosity and relentless degradation until final and total separation from God.

SUMMARY OF CORRESPONDENCE

Concerning efforts to secure the damnation of a young man, these are letters from uncle Screwtape to Wormwood outlined for summary understanding. Together, they represent the courses of action between an old devil Screwtape and his young demonic protégé, Wormwood. Following C.S. Lewis’s rationale (and satire) concerning the alarming methods and intentions of adversarial efforts of spiritual enemies, we learn what we’re up against from among Screwtape’s letters.

MACHINATIONS

Erratum 1:

Keep him from science and the ability or interest of proper season. He must remain preoccupied with the ordinary. Your job is to keep him focused on “real life.”

Erratum 2:

On the displeasing news that he becomes a Christian, keep him entangled in improper habits and values as long as possible to impede his spiritual growth. While continuing to think he is doing his church a favor by attending services, his mind must remain occupied with comparisons between what is observed among church congregants and how he thinks church members should be.

Erratum 3:

It is of utmost importance that the relationship between the young man and his mother is a constant series of annoyances. The domestic life of family must be aggravating even in the slightest way possible, but with pin-prick persistence in tone, mannerisms, and words chosen during conversation that does subtle yet cumulative harm. Develop circumstances in which offense and grievance are paramount among family members at the slightest interaction. Pay more attention to the young man’s concern about the spiritual condition of the mother as he is focused on the condition of the soul and sins of the past. If the young man should begin to guide his mother in prayer, or spiritual development, make sure that the effort is fruitless. If he is to pray for his mother, his prayers are to be on the grounds of uniformed and reckless concern.

Erratum 4:

It’s best to keep the young man, the patient, from praying. However, if prayer is to occur, it must be kept inward, informal, and unregularized. Any cognitive effort during prayer shall not be present within the patient, but a vague sense of devotion shall be the main course of prayer. It is unacceptable for the patient to pray out loud or on his knees. Prayer is to be superficial as it is among those very far advanced in the Enemy’s service. As this effort continues, keep the patient focused on their own minds and direct their gaze elsewhere from any service to the Enemy. Try to stimulate feelings within the patient to misdirect his intention. Look into the patient’s mind to find as much dirt as possible while he is praying and focused on God. Finally, keep the patient praying to the object through which his imagination is anchored.

Erratum 5:

The anguish of a human soul is nothing to be exuberant about. Don’t let it go to your head. If you trap the human soul and eternally secure his fate forever, the patient will belong to you while he is in despair, horror, and astonishment. To undermine faith and the development of virtues, it is necessary to render a complete account of the patient’s reactions to the war in Europe about to get underway. Do your best to make the patient an extreme patriot or ardent pacifist, as humans undergo extreme suffering in service of your father below.

Erratum 6:

It is desirable to have the patient in a continuous or periodic state of anxiety and uncertainty. Blocking a human’s mind against the Enemy is of concern as there’s an effort to preoccupy what will happen to him. The Enemy wants the patient to be concerned about what he does and not what he thinks about himself or his state of mind. In the midst of mental suffering, direct the patient’s thoughts and prayers upon himself where he has no interest in directing his attention upon the Enemy or others. Direct the patient’s concentration and mind to the object and circumstances and never upon the Enemy or others.

If the patient does happen to have concern and anguish about the state of society, world affairs, or the war, direct the malice of the patient to those around him. Suppose he should develop compassion or empathy toward people. In that case, they are to be directed to people at a distance among people unknown. Inflamed hatred of immediate surroundings among neighbors begins to transfer to family, friends, fellow students, and the patient’s employer. Distant care and empathy remain imaginary.

Erratum 7:

It is not acceptable to reveal your existence to the patient. The father below does not permit it. If the patient begins to wonder about it, direct his thoughts and passions elsewhere by distraction and suggestive interests. Keep the patient confused and oblivious to the existence of spirits, demons, and devils where no suspicion is permitted to surface. Suggest anything contradictory to the existence of dark influences. Redirect attention to base interest concerning cravings, lusts, and passions. Passivism or patriotism taken to heightened interest can become a source of workable influence on the spiritual demise of the patient. Hatred and pride must be permitted to form and fester where the patient continues to abide by it with people of common interest. Cliques within the church that keep it small with no outreach due to its insular posture against the more immediate community help to shunt access to relief for spiritual, mental, emotional, and physical well-being. So long as the patient is more concerned about his passions rather than his spiritual formation, the sacraments, prayer, scripture, charity, and devotion to the Enemy, he remains in the realm of the father below.

Erratum 8:

Humans are both flesh and spirit, so their interests and imaginations continually change. It is expected that the patient will have seasons of spiritual ups and downs during the course of life. Peaks and valleys of spiritual, emotional, mental, and physical well-being are characteristic of people who are devoted to the Enemy. Intervals of vacant feelings, hopes, and desires will be interspersed with joy, faith, and love. Periods of dry existence are certain. So during these periods, the Enemy will likely use the circumstances for the betterment of the patient. Determine what the Enemy is doing, and make it your efforts to do the opposite. The Enemy relies on hard times to take permanent possession of those He loves. As this is a direct conflict of interest, people to us are cattle who serve as spiritual food. As they are captured and enslaved, they abide by the will of the father below and all his constituents.

It is understood that the Enemy will not override people’s will to assimilate them as He desires them to be one with Him by their choices. By sovereign intent, He will, at times, make His presence known, which will help the patient to overcome temptations with encouragement, peace, and emotional delight in the Enemy. So when the Enemy withdraws from the patient for him to stand on his own, the more temptation you direct toward him, the better. If the Enemy is served and obeyed when the patient is distant or convinced he is forsaken, He is pleased, and that is when significant damage is done to the interests of the father below.

Erratum 9:

During the valleys of spiritual growth, the best areas of temptation are about the sensuality of the patient. When a person’s life is empty and without warmth or the color of life, that is drawn into perversion and disappointing sexuality. Any form of physical defilement is where the temptation for pleasure is focused. Capture the person’s soul through his or her own interests, especially through periods of mental or spiritual dryness. This will lead to doubt about spiritual matters and religion and that it is only helpful to a point. Your efforts at deception would involve terms and accusations that characterize periods of doubt as phases of life. Reason, intellect, and thought were adversaries during this time, whereas platitudes and seeds sown as catchphrases and terminology of popular social interests arose as the paramount concern. Keep the patient’s mind off of notions of true and false with gradations and nuances of meaning.

Erratum 10:

The vanity of the patient is of considerable use. In the areas of social, intellectual, cultural, and sexual interest, the patient can betray who he really is, and by doing so often and long enough, he might become what he pretends to be. The patient’s life among circles of friends who are different from who he really is (his values, capabilities, understanding, station in life) can become an entanglement that is difficult to get free from. Here, it is useful to attack the patient’s virtues or even his wonder about what they are. Then feed this vanity and do not let the patient think of his friends as circles to which he pretends to be someone he is not. With precipitous reinforcement, the patient will, under false pretenses and treachery, come to feel satisfied with the neglect of himself, his mother, and those responsibilities others rely on.

Erratum 11:

Laughter and joy are not useful to the objectives before you. Nor is music with harmony and rhythm. As fun is associated with joy, it is an undesirable artifact of human existence. It promotes virtues that work against the objectives of what you’re set to do. Laughter, fun, and joy turned in on itself with perverse intent is a course of action that is the better way to go.

Erratum 12:

As the patient is pressed to error and spiritual undoing, make him imagine that all his choices are revokable. He is allowed to retain the habits of a Christian externally, but his spiritual state must remain the same without recognizing sin. Do not allow genuine repentance to develop and inhibit the patient’s desire and interest in the Enemy. Waste his time because the gradual and precipitous slide into Hell is more certain with enough care and attention to detail. Be not as concerned about outright grievous sins, but keep him from doing anything. While efforts are directed to distractions from his purpose, you are to seek numbness of the heart with vanity, flippancy, and habits. Separate the patient from the Enemy into nothing.

Erratum 13:

Simple pleasures that positively affect a person’s faith are disastrous to the cause. It is not acceptable to permit the patient to be satisfied in what makes him sufficiently refreshed or restored, whether of the heart, mind, or spirit. The patient is instead to want the best of anything that appeals to the appetite, contrary to what leads to both repentance and active obedience to the Enemy. The patient can undergo a change of mind or a change of heart, but he must not do anything about it.

Erratum 14:

Make the patient proud. Even if incrementally and conceal the end result of humility. Make him value an opinion for some quality other than Truth. Dishonesty and false belief about a counterfeit virtue as something more prized. Run interference to the Enemy and all His intentions. It is imperative to destroy any self-perceived notion of glorious and excellent things where the desire for consistent attention to the Enemy’s interests is well-served. Virtues that enable Godly self-love that positively affects neighbors is the harm done to the cause.

Erratum 15:

Keep the patient worried. Live in the future or the past, but not the present or the eternal. However, it is better to focus on the future to stir and perpetuate worry. The future is the least like eternity. Nearly all vices are rooted in the future. Fear, lust, avarice, and ambition have interrelated temporality. The sin that is conceived and born happens before it is committed. Conversely, if in the present, the patient’s view and confidence about the future is a source of peace and contentment, that is an area to attack.

Erratum 16:

As a recent convert, it is advisable to send the patient to various churches if he should become dissatisfied with his existing fellowship. Even if the patient is faithful to a church for a long while, it is time and effort well spent to stir up division among congregants and the leadership. Even if the patient were to attend other churches nearby, they practice their faith in an abundance of error. The teaching is mainly erroneous and limited, whereby the spiritual development of congregants is stunted no matter where he goes.

Erratum 17:

Press in on a deadened conscience about gluttony as that is to be concentrated on delicacy and not only excess. Gluttony of this sort is a sensuality that leads to other areas of damage to the soul. It also has a devastating effect on social and interpersonal relationships concerning the patient as he must get exactly what he wants no matter how small or the grief it causes others. While it might appear that the patient is practicing temperance, in reality, the opposite happens on another scale. The stomach represents the appetite for sensual pleasure as it translates to incremental want beyond the interests of others.

Erratum 18:

Marrying for any other reason than love, such as procreation, is to culture a cynical view of what it means to become one flesh for a mutually inward purpose: the Enemy demands either monogamy or complete abstinence. There is a sense of entitlement among those who wish to marry that there must be love that brings them together as the exclusive reason to which they could marry. As it is naturally evident, the method of reproduction comes through copulation between a man and a woman. Yet, the union between them is a physical representation of the members of the three as God. As a couple marries and comes together as one flesh, they represent the tri-unity of the Creator. So as couples do not have mutual feelings of affection and love to give cause for marriage, even while they’re a suitable fit for one another to grow in a fruitful and loving relationship, there is a viable opening to keep any such couple separated.

Erratum 19:

The idea that the Enemy loves people is an impossible proposition. Nevertheless, it is worth your time and effort to make the patient believe that love is both intrinsically meritorious and irresistible if your patient is gullible. Determine what type of man is the point of concentration to which your project seals him in final and eternal condemnation. If he is proud, lead him to asceticism, where the body is disconnected from humanized and physical intimacy. These conditions can set the groundwork for adultery, suicide, and worse. At the very least, please do your best to ensure the patient marries someone you identify from the local community who would make it impossible for him to live out his faith.

Erratum 20:

If it’s impossible to persuade the patient that chastity is unhealthy, it then becomes a priority to bring him into a marriage unsuitable to him and his faith. The preference is to perpetuate the common belief that the only way to get rid of temptation is to yield to it, but there are extenuating circumstances here. If the only option is to make the patient fall in love with a woman, two conditions must follow. You must select one of two types of women. An exceedingly arrogant woman or an excessively withdrawn and cowardly female with a heightened form of feminity will do. In either instance, the likelihood of bearing children is reduced to satisfy our mutual interests.

Erratum 21:

You must ensure that the patient, who is devoted to the Enemy, believes that all his days and hours are exclusively his time. Cultivate within the patient a sense of ownership of time and what he believes rightfully belongs to him.

Erratum 22:

[ Letter 22 from Screwtape to Wormwood was a complete meltdown. Upon learning that the patient has come to a loving relationship with a Godly woman full of the Spirit, with virtue, peace, and grace, Screwtape flies off into a tirade with insults directed at everyone around him. The likeness of Christ within her and the echoes of Heaven in their home set him in a verbal rage when suddenly he is transformed into a centipede (which is reportedly a transformation that arrives from the inner self). Screwtape attributes the unexpected yet periodic shape change to an act of God. As his letter to Wormwood is interrupted, Screwtape’s undersecretary “Toadpipe” takes dictation to finish the written message to Wormwood. Toadpipe signed the letter, For his Abysmal Sublimity Undersecretary Screwtape, TE, BS, Etc. ].

Erratum 23:

While it becomes possible and certain that spirituality cannot be removed from the patient, it becomes necessary to corrupt it. To do that, you must inject a “historical Jesus” centered on interest involving liberalism, humanitarian efforts, Marxism, and social justice. This is to direct people’s devotion off of Jesus and onto other pursuits and interests. Jesus must become just a great moral teacher only. To further corrupt spirituality, the devotional life of people must be destroyed. The root of corruption grows into allowing people to form their political, professional, social, and personal lives for advancement and gain. Efforts toward spiritual revival for the betterment of society are an empty course of practice as the Enemy will not stand for being leveraged in this way. So, this is what you must specifically do in an effort to corrupt the spiritual development of the patient and the believers around him. Even if the effort is to develop a smaller piece of a false and counterfeit form of service and devotion, that is time and energy well spent.

Erratum 24:

[As Wormwood is in charge of the young man’s sought-after demise (the patient), another demonic entity has dark spiritual authority over the young woman the patient has grown to love. Screwtape writes further to Wormwood about correspondence with Slumtrimpet, the dark authority in charge of the malevolence against the young woman.]

As it is observed that the patient is introduced to other believers, he is naturally interested in learning more to grow spiritually. The young girl, in her innocence, could be useful in this regard. As she has an ability to recognize what is authentic and counterfeit, or imitation, this can be made to influence the patient into hideous Spiritual Pride. As the patient learns from more spiritually mature believers, he is to be made that his learning is his own. He earned what he has come to understand, and he has come into a stature where he now belongs to ‘his people.’ He then turns from segments of society as they are beneath him or separate, as they are no longer entertaining or of value. Making the patient believe that by his interpersonal circles, formed through his delight in the young woman, he will come to know his fellowship as “his people.” He must begin to feel entitled to people he believes are “his” people as a unique set and the right kind of people. Sinful social vanity is one thing, but Spiritual Pride is another, and you will want to concentrate on the latter.

Erratum 25:

It is also a particular desire to associate Christianity with some other corresponding interest as an attached and interdependent concern of the faith. Christianity and social justice, Christianity and tradition, Christianity and prosperity, Christianity and social well-being, and so forth are circumstances to cultivate within the patient. Work on their horror for the familiar. It is said that familiarity breeds contempt, and so change must be made with some regularity. Not for change as a pleasurable experience but as a continuity of novelty and demand for gratification. The point is to reduce healthy pleasure for ever-increasing desire with a growing outcome toward avarice (extreme greed for wealth or material gain). The nonsense of the intellect can further corrupt the will on the incessant path of modernity. So, get the patient to ask if faithful interests, Christian practices, and devotion are in step with the progressive trajectory of social and civil order. This philosophy or pattern of thought renders people susceptible to distraction where their wills are bent toward what the father below prescribes.

Erratum 26:

Perpetual self-sacrifice in the form of self-righteous generosity can lead to an inability to seek the needs of others through proper outreach, charity, and love. Watch for opportunities to breed hidden resentment or subtle conflict between the patient, his young woman, and related families.

Erratum 27:

Encourage the patient to reject prayers for help about a wandering mind or distractions as he has become more attuned to temporal happiness now that he has a love for a young woman. As concerns spill over into other areas that work against his more immediate happiness, interject thoughts with intellectual difficulties that lead to flawed rationale about his state of mind during prayer. Through this, you aim to persuade him that petitionary prayers are ineffective. As the patient becomes more familiar with the current state of thinking among scholars and spiritual leaders concerning the historical writings of ancient authors, guide him toward those who assert that history, which comports with Truth and the Enemy’s work throughout Creation, is false.

Erratum 28:

You’re to keep the patient alive as long as you can during his course of life. He would not be consigned to Hell if he were to die today because he has surrendered himself to the Enemy. He has remained close to the Enemy and seeks to obey Him at every turn. The longer the patient is alive after he has given himself to the Enemy, the more hope there is to win him to the father below. If he is permitted to live and remain protected while he settles into earthly living, he might become more susceptible to compromise during attacks until his final demise.

Erratum 29:

Muddle the patient’s virtues. Evaluate the best target for the most favorable outcomes against the patient. Some existing virtue is necessary to develop and magnify a man’s wickedness. Using people with virtues to betray one’s own is a deception and a trade worth making. It is necessary to recognize virtue and what it is or does in order to see it in others and betray it. Even if temporarily by confusion.

Erratum 30:

The continued erosion of virtue while the patient is tired, exhausted, or afraid is of significant interest. Because when he is attacked under these conditions, what is spiritually real can become questionable. Where doubt sets in, different choices can be made with devastating consequences. Blinding people to the existence of virtues or their absence can render individuals aware or oblivious to lapses in moral values and behaviors. With increased fear, there is the potential for anger and anxiety.

Erratum 31:

[ Screwtape is displeased with Wormwood as the patient had escaped their grasp just as he passed away. The patient’s soul has slipped through their temptations despite their machinations. Screwtape is extraordinarily angered by Wormwood getting outmaneuvered. And Screwtape lamented what was revealed to the patient upon death. The patient’s explicit knowledge of sin and what Wormwood and his associates had done faded into shadow as salvation was finally attained. All the temptations and attacks of Wormwood were future in the end. The patient would encounter pain, suffering, and trial no more. As Screwtape was assured and obnoxious about Wormwood’s failures at tempting the patient to drag him to Hell, he sank into further misery and angst about the rejection of their work.

As Screwtape signed off on each letter, he wrote, “Your affectionate Uncle SCREWTAPE,” but this time, he made sure that Wormwood would have to settle with him about the loss. Screwtape’s final signoff was especially ominous. ]

SCREWTAPE PROPOSES A TOAST

These were diabolical letters. An exercise in twisting the mind. A projection into a dark view of humanity and its depravity. The use of diabolical ventriloquism was a look at what spiritual temptation looks like with provocateurs of evil origin. As the errata closed, the author returns later with the Screwtape figure as an honored guest in Hell who proposed a toast to his contemporaries within an esteemed academic institution. His gesture of celebration and appeal to mutual congratulation for the work of seasoned professional tempters and newcomers was a scene of vile contempt with reason and wicked persuasion. Screwtape drew attention at his college address to the individual, cliques, modern society, and evil systems of government who were quite capable of putting themselves squarely in Hell without any aid of devils, demons, or other evil influences. All those in attendance in Hell were given a discourse on precisely how lost, socially misled, and self-corrupted people are perfectly capable of doing the work of Hell’s appointed occupants.