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Rock and Sand

By on in Theology

“Rock and Sand: An Orthodox Appraisal of the Protestant Reformers and Their Teachings” by Dr. Josiah Trenham significantly contributes to the ongoing dialogue between Orthodox Christianity and Protestantism. Published in 2015, this work aims to provide an Orthodox perspective on the Protestant Reformation, its key figures, and its theological implications. Dr. Josiah Trenham, a priest in the Orthodox Church, presents a detailed examination of the Reformation, juxtaposing Orthodox Christian theology with various Protestant traditions.

Introduction

In Christian thought’s vast and varied landscape, the dialogue between tradition and reform is both ancient and ongoing. “Rock and Sand” by Josiah Trenham is a significant marker in this conversation, offering a discerning yet charitable Orthodox appraisal of the Protestant Reformers and their teachings. This work is not merely an academic exercise; it is a heartfelt endeavor to bridge understanding between two profound expressions of Christian faith while firmly grounding itself in the bedrock of Orthodox tradition.

Father Trenham, with erudition and pastoral sensitivity, embarks on a journey through the tumultuous waters of the Reformation, navigating with a compass set by the early Church Fathers. His exploration is polemical yet permeated with a spirit of charity, acknowledging the Protestant Reformers’ sincere religious fervor and theological contributions, even as he critiques their departures from what he perceives as the true apostolic faith.

The book is structured as a dialogue between “Rock” and “Sand,” metaphorically representing the enduring solidity of Orthodox tradition and the shifting grounds of Reformation thought, respectively. The “Rock” section lays a foundation, elucidating the Orthodox perspective on crucial Christian doctrines, including the nature of the Church, the sacraments, and the path to salvation. This section is not just a defense but an invitation to glimpse the beauty and depth of Orthodox theology, rooted in centuries of contemplation and liturgical life.

In contrast, the “Sand” section is a thoughtful examination of the Reformation, characterized not by dismissiveness but by a rigorous engagement with the theological innovations introduced by figures like Luther, Calvin, and Zwingli. Father Trenham’s critiques are framed with respect, aiming not to disparage but to dialogue, question, and seek understanding. His approach reflects a deep commitment to truth and a pastoral concern for unity in the body of Christ.

“Rock and Sand” is, at its heart, a call to conversation. It is an appeal to both Orthodox and Protestant believers to reflect on their roots, to consider the implications of their theological stances, and to engage with one another not as adversaries but as fellow pilgrims on the journey of faith. Father Trenham’s work is a testament to the possibility of rigorous theological discourse maintaining a spirit of love and respect for those with whom we disagree.

In this introduction to “Rock and Sand,” we are invited to embark on a journey of discovery to explore the contours of Christian history and theology with an open heart and a discerning mind. May this book serve as a bridge, encouraging us to walk across with a spirit of humility and a shared desire for the truth that transcends our divisions, finding common ground in our mutual love for Christ and His Church.

Critical Analysis

Josiah Trenham’s “Rock and Sand” critiques key Protestant movements, including Lutheranism, Calvinism, and Anabaptism. His analysis is rooted in a deep commitment to Orthodox theology and ecclesiology, providing a critical perspective to foster understanding.

Lutheranism

Trenham’s examination of Lutheranism centers on Martin Luther, the seminal figure of the Protestant Reformation. He acknowledges Luther’s profound impact on Christianity, noting his initial intention to reform perceived abuses within the Roman Catholic Church. Trenham highlights Luther’s doctrine of justification by faith alone (sola fide) as a radical departure from the traditional Christian understanding of salvation as a synergistic process involving faith and works, as upheld by the Orthodox Church.

Trenham critiques Luther’s interpretation of Scripture, particularly his emphasis on the primacy of faith to the exclusion of works, as an oversimplification that neglects the holistic scriptural narrative of salvation. He also addresses Luther’s rejection of certain sacraments and his reconfiguration of the Eucharist, which diverge significantly from Orthodox sacramental theology. Trenham’s critique is not merely doctrinal but also ecclesiological, pointing out that Luther’s break from Rome led to a fracturing of Christian unity and the subsequent proliferation of denominations, which he views as contrary to the unity prayed for by Christ.

Calvinism

In addressing Calvinism, Trenham focuses on John Calvin, whose theological systematization and emphasis on the sovereignty of God have deeply influenced Protestant thought. Trenham engages critically with Calvin’s doctrine of predestination, arguing that it undermines the biblical teaching of free will and God’s universal desire for salvation. He contends that Calvin’s emphasis on the total depravity of humanity and the irresistible grace of God presents a view of salvation that is at odds with the Orthodox understanding of cooperation between human freedom and divine grace.

Trenham also takes issue with the Calvinist understanding of the Eucharist, particularly the spiritual presence of Christ, as opposed to the real presence affirmed by Orthodox theology. He views Calvin’s ecclesiology, with its rejection of apostolic succession and the sacramental priesthood, as a departure from the apostolic tradition maintained by the Orthodox Church.

Anabaptism

Trenham’s analysis of Anabaptism recognizes the diversity within this movement, which emerged as a radical wing of the Reformation, advocating for adult baptism and a visible church of believers. He appreciates the Anabaptists’ emphasis on personal piety and ethical living but critiques their rejection of infant baptism as inconsistent with the early Church’s practices and teachings. Trenham sees the Anabaptist separation from the wider society and their skepticism of established church structures as problematic, arguing that it leads to a form of ecclesial isolation that is alien to the Orthodox vision of the Church as a sacramental community that sanctifies God’s people in the world through its presence.

Trenham is particularly concerned with the Anabaptist tendency towards theological individualism and the consequent subjective interpretation of Scripture, which he believes undermines the Christian faith’s communal and apostolic nature and authority as understood in Orthodoxy.

The Church of England

Trenham’s examination of the Church of England (Anglicanism) is nuanced, recognizing its unique position as a via media, or “middle way,” between Roman Catholicism and Protestantism. He notes the historical and political circumstances surrounding its formation under King Henry VIII and its subsequent theological development under figures like Thomas Cranmer and Richard Hooker. Trenham appreciates the Church of England’s retention of certain liturgical and sacramental elements, which he sees as vestiges of apostolic Christianity. Still, he critiques the Church’s departure from Orthodox ecclesiology and theology in several key areas:

Authority and Tradition: Trenham critiques the Anglican reliance on the Elizabethan Settlement’s “three-legged stool” of Scripture, tradition, and reason as a departure from the Orthodox understanding of Holy Tradition as the life of the Holy Spirit within the Church, guiding the faithful in interpreting Scripture and living out the Christian faith.
Ecclesiology: He addresses the issue of apostolic succession in the context of the English Reformation, questioning the validity of Anglican orders from an Orthodox standpoint due to changes in ordination rites and the theological understanding of the priesthood.
Sacramental Theology: While acknowledging the Anglican Communion’s maintenance of a sacramental worldview, Trenham points out divergences in the understanding and practice of sacraments like the Eucharist, where the range of Anglican theological positions does not always align with the Orthodox faith in the real presence of Christ.
Ethical and Moral Teachings: Trenham also touches upon the contemporary challenges within Anglicanism, especially around ethical issues, where he perceives a departure from traditional Christian teachings in some parts of the Anglican Communion.

Evangelicalism

When turning his attention to Evangelicalism, Trenham engages with a movement characterized by its emphasis on the authority of Scripture, the necessity of a personal conversion experience, and active evangelism. He appreciates the enthusiasm for personal faith and the commitment to the Bible that Evangelicals demonstrate but expresses concern over what he sees as a reductionist approach to Christianity:

Sola Scriptura and Interpretive Pluralism: Trenham critiques the Evangelical reliance on Scripture alone, apart from the interpretative context of Holy Tradition, which he argues leads to a fragmentation of belief and practice within Christianity.
Personal Conversion and Ecclesiology: While recognizing the importance of personal faith, Trenham critiques the Evangelical emphasis on individual conversion experiences at the expense of a communal, sacramental, and liturgical life, which he sees as central to Orthodox Christianity.
Liturgy and Sacraments: He expresses concern over the diminished role of liturgy and sacraments in many Evangelical communities, viewing this as a departure from the worship life of the early Church.
Moral and Social Engagement: Trenham notes the significant contributions of Evangelicals in social and moral spheres but calls for a more integrated approach to faith and works, in line with Orthodox teaching on theosis as the transformation of the whole person in Christ.

Josiah Trenham delves into the complexities of the Roman Catholic Counter-Reformation and the perceived decline of Protestantism, offering a critical and reflective Orthodox perspective. His analysis is situated within a broader discussion of Christian history, where he seeks to understand these movements in their theological and ecclesiastical dimensions and their historical and cultural contexts.

Counter-Reformation

Trenham’s treatment of the Counter-Reformation, the Catholic Church’s response to the challenges posed by the Protestant Reformation, is nuanced. He acknowledges the Counter-Reformation’s role in addressing abuses and reaffirming key Catholic doctrines, as seen in the Council of Trent (1545-1563) and the subsequent Catholic revival. Trenham views these developments through an Orthodox lens, recognizing both positive reforms and areas where he believes the Counter-Reformation further entrenched theological errors or practices divergent from Orthodox tradition.

Reaffirmation of Catholic Doctrine: Trenham notes the Council of Trent’s role in clarifying Catholic teachings in response to Protestant critiques. He provides an Orthodox appraisal of these clarifications, particularly on issues like justification, the sacraments, and the role of tradition, highlighting areas of agreement and divergence with Orthodox theology.
Spiritual and Educational Renewal: He appreciates the Counter-Reformation’s emphasis on spiritual renewal and its efforts to improve clerical education and lay piety.
Missionary Expansion: Trenham examines the Counter-Reformation’s missionary efforts, recognizing the zeal for evangelization while also critiquing the colonial and coercive aspects of some missionary activities, contrasting them with the Orthodox approach to mission.
Ecclesiological and Liturgical Developments: He critiques certain Counter-Reformation ecclesiological decisions and liturgical reforms for deviating from early Christian practices, as understood by the Orthodox Church, particularly regarding papal authority and the centralization of ecclesiastical power.

Trenham provides a further Orthodox perspective on the Counter-Reformation, including a nuanced analysis of the role of the Jesuits and the concept of Papal authority during this pivotal period in Christian history. His examination is part of a broader endeavor to understand the theological and ecclesiological shifts that occurred in response to the Protestant Reformation and how these shifts have influenced Christian discourse across various traditions.

The Role of the Jesuits

The Society of Jesus, or Jesuits, founded by Ignatius of Loyola in 1540, played a crucial role in the Counter-Reformation. Trenham acknowledges the Jesuits’ significant contributions to the Catholic Church’s renewal efforts, focusing on their educational, missionary, and apologetic work. He appreciates their dedication to rigorous education and intellectual engagement, which led to the founding of numerous schools and universities that have contributed to Christian scholarship.

Educational Initiatives: Trenham notes the Jesuits’ emphasis on education to reform the Church and society. He views their approach to education as a positive force for deepening theological understanding and fostering a more informed clergy and laity.
Missionary Endeavors: The Jesuits’ missionary activities are recognized for their global reach and impact. Trenham examines these efforts with a critical eye, acknowledging the zeal for evangelization while also discussing the complexities and challenges of missionary work, including cultural encounters and the tension between conversion efforts and respect for indigenous cultures.
Apologetic and Counter-Reformation Activities: The Jesuits’ role in defending Catholic doctrine against Protestant critiques is a key focus of Trenham’s analysis. He critiques some of their methods and theologically engages with their apologetic works, highlighting areas of disagreement from an Orthodox standpoint and recognizing their commitment to their faith.

Papal Authority

Papal authority is central to Trenham’s critique of the Counter-Reformation period. He views the consolidation of Papal power and the definition of Papal infallibility (formally declared later at the First Vatican Council in 1870 but gaining momentum during the Counter-Reformation) as significant departures from the early Church’s conciliar and collegial governance model.

Centralization of Authority: Trenham discusses how the Counter-Reformation contributed to the centralization of authority in the papacy, moving away from the Orthodox model of ecclesial authority vested in the consensus of bishops and ecumenical councils.
Papal Infallibility: While the doctrine of Papal infallibility was not formally defined until the 19th century, Trenham addresses the trajectory set during the Counter-Reformation that led to its eventual acceptance. He critiques this development from an Orthodox perspective, emphasizing the importance of conciliarity and the collective authority of the Church’s bishops.
Ecclesiological Implications: The strengthening of Papal authority is seen by Trenham as contributing to a rift between Eastern and Western Christianity, further complicating efforts toward Christian unity.

Decline of Protestantism

When addressing the perceived theological decline of Protestantism, Trenham explores the theological fragmentation and secularization that have impacted many Protestant denominations in the modern era. He attributes part of this decline to foundational issues within Protestantism, such as the principle of sola scriptura and the lack of a unified ecclesiastical authority, which he argues has led to doctrinal relativism and a diminished sense of the sacred.

Theological Fragmentation: While recognizing the intent of confessional standards of protestant traditions (e.g., Westminster, Concord, etc.), Trenham discusses the proliferation of Protestant denominations as a consequence of the principle of sola scriptura, suggesting that the absence of a unified interpretative authority has led to a fragmentation of faith and practice.
Secularization and Moral Relativism: He critiques the impact of secularization on Protestantism, observing how certain denominations have conformed to secular moral norms, particularly on issues of sexuality and life ethics, moving away from traditional Christian teachings.
Ecclesiological Challenges: Trenham reflects on the challenges faced by Protestant ecclesiology, including the loss of apostolic succession and the sacramental priesthood, which he sees as contributing to a weakened sense of ecclesial identity and authority.
Cultural and Liturgical Dilution: He expresses concern over the dilution of liturgical worship and the loss of a sense of the sacred in some reductionistic Protestant communities, advocating for a return to a more traditional, sacramental, and liturgical form of Christian worship.

Summary

In “Rock and Sand,” Father Josiah Trenham embarks on a scholarly and respectful examination of Protestantism and the Reformation from an Orthodox Christian perspective. His analysis is both comprehensive and favorable, acknowledging the profound impact of the Reformation on Christian history while also offering a critical reflection through the lens of Orthodox theology and tradition.

Trenham begins his analysis by recognizing the significant contributions of the Reformation to Christian thought and practice. He appreciates the Reformers’ zeal for Scriptural authority, personal piety, and their desire to return to the early Church’s simplicity and fervor. Trenham highlights the positive aspects of the Reformation’s call to moral and ecclesiastical reform, acknowledging the genuine concerns about ecclesiastical corruption and the need for spiritual renewal that motivated many of the Reformers.

A notable feature of Trenham’s work is his respectful engagement with key figures of the Reformation, such as Martin Luther, John Calvin, and Ulrich Zwingli. He delves into their writings and theological positions with care, aiming to highlight their context and motivations. Trenham’s approach is not to vilify these individuals but to critically engage with their ideas earnestly, recognizing their contributions to the development of separated Christian traditions and its expressions of faith.

Critical Yet Charitable Analysis

Trenham’s critique of Protestant doctrines and practices is rooted in a deep commitment to Orthodox Christianity’s theological and liturgical traditions. While he raises pressing concerns about certain Reformation teachings, such as sola scriptura (Scripture alone) and sola fide (faith alone), his critical views are offered in a spirit of charity. Trenham expresses a desire for unity and understanding among Christians, emphasizing the importance of returning to the faith and practices of the early Church as a basis for reconciliation.

Orthodox Perspective on Unity and Truth

Central to Trenham’s analysis is the Orthodox perspective on theological and ecclesial truth. He contrasts the Orthodox Church’s emphasis on apostolic succession, sacramental life, and the continuity of tradition with the changes introduced by the Reformation. Trenham urges an Orthodox approach to Christian unity grounded in a shared commitment to the teachings and practices of the early Church.

Conclusion

Josiah Trenham’s “Rock and Sand” offers a thoughtful and respectful analysis of Protestantism and the Reformation from an Orthodox viewpoint. While critical of numerous adverse developments within the Protestant and Reformed ethos of faith, Trenham’s work is imbued with a genuine respect for the Reformers’ academic contributions and virtues with an acknowledgment of the Reformation’s complex legacy.

Vatican II & the Aggiornamento

By on in Theology

Apparently, the Roman Catholic Church places little comparative weight upon the authority of Scripture as the apostolic, prophetic, and patriarchal witness to worship, the covenant proclamations, and obligations of God’s people. It emphasizes tradition, philosophy, and Greco-Roman and Hellenized patristic sources of order and religious structure.

Yves Congar

Yves Congar (1904-1995), a French Dominican priest, cardinal, friar, and theologian, was a controversial figure highly influential to the development of the Second Vatican Council. He is well known for his work concerning a return to the sources of biblical studies, liturgy, and tradition for historical and biblical authority on faith. The whole effort as ressourcement was to reform the Catholic Church to break from Neo-Scholasticism and organize a laity movement that adheres to a patristic conception of the Church. He sought to bring clarity and formation to the community of Catholic believers to fulfill the Church’s apostolic mission.

John XXIII

Pope John XXIII (Angelo Giusseppe Roncalli, 1881-1963) was responsible for calling the Second Vatican Council into formation. Influenced by nouvelle théologie and Congar Yves’ True and False Reform in the Church, Pope John XXIII through Vatican II directed a reformation that involved a pastoral focus among its parishes. The post-World War II sentiment concerning modernity, technological advancements, and nuclear weapon proliferation set the stage for the Catholic church’s outreach and move toward solidarity with humanity. According to the Livingston text, Vatican II drew closer attention to peace, social justice, and a desire to relieve spiritual hunger where there was widespread spiritual hunger.

Vatican II

The Second Vatican Council lasted from 1962 through 1965, and it was a reformation of the Catholic Church. It significantly transformed the Church organization more in alignment with modern culture and society as a whole. Vatican II produced a constitution based upon historical tradition and theology that contrasted the hierarchical structures and doctrine of papal infallibility of Vatican I. Much of its significance is centered upon the understanding and functions of the Church. The body of Christ as a community was returned to the apostolic view of its character and formation to serve its intended purpose. More specifically, as the Church of Christ “subsists in” the Roman Catholic Church, it implemented improvements concerning the role of local priests and its emphasis toward shepherding with the laity to fill duties as the Church laid claim to the concept of the universal priesthood (1 Pet 2:9). The people of the Church were “on the way” or of a pilgrimage toward holiness both individually and as a community.

Pastoral liturgy and sacramental emphasis underwent changes to support people-friendly patterns of worship more clearly. Language in the vernacular was permitted at the pastoral level, while the formation of local ministries attended the social life and reality of hardships. Bishops were brought together in a Synod of collegiate leadership to better support their areas of responsibility according to Catholic principles, apostolic tradition, doctrine, and the renewed emphasis upon biblical studies and community. There was substantial attention placed upon people concerning their social life with respect to the Church’s mission and social vision.

Hans Küng

The legacy of Hans Küng (1928-2021) is about his ecumenical approach to theology and controversial positions with the Catholic Church about the infallibility of the papacy and the limitations of language to interpret the meaning and realities of truth. With his call to return to Scripture of the authority over a sinful Church, it has the authority to resolve ambiguities, disputes, or points of disagreement about the structure and doctrines of the Church. He was a Swiss theologian who called attention to the structures of the Church with an orientation toward Scripture and the apostolic tradition. The Hellenization of the Roman Church was a point of criticism as it was a Patristic organizational structure foreign to what Küng made clear from the text of Scripture.

He wrote numerous texts during the course of his life’s work as a Catholic priest, a Jesuit, theologian, and author. His work as a theological adviser during the Second Vatican Council also positioned him as an influential thought leader within the Catholic Church. From his interaction and activity with Karl Barth, he with limited fashion, reconciled the doctrine of justification with Protestant theology to indicate that a person is justified by faith alone and not by works. While The Catholic Church censured Hans Küng for his assertions concerning papal infallibility, he remained an admired and devoted follower of Christ who constructively contributed to the faith of many. Pope John Paul II declared that Küng was no longer considered a Catholic theologian due to his position about the papacy.

John Courtney Murray

Another influential figure upon the Second Vatical Council was John Murray (1904-1967). He was a Jesuit priest and theologian broadly effective by his published work in theological studies. Toward his mid-life’s work, his focus turned toward the relationship between the Church and State that consequently placed him in a position to advocate for religious freedom in the context of Vatican II. Murray was committed to human rights but was also an accomplished theologian with Catholic tradition commitments. His views concerning religious freedom were developed on three platforms of interest: philosophical, theological, and practical. Religious liberty within constitutional government was of paramount importance, and his views were of significant contrast from a legal and moral perspective.

Hans von Balthasar

An outspoken critic of Vatican II was Hans von Balthasar (1905-1988). While he wasn’t an academic or Ph.D. with credentials in theological or philosophical disciplines, he was an author of many books across various topics. He wasn’t trained to contribute to the Catholic Church as an instructor or to teach at a college or university formally. Still, he had substantial influence and standing with well-known Catholic intellectuals. He wasn’t conditioned to tow the Catholic line by his training in formal Catholic theology in an academic or institutional setting. As Balthasar’s voluminous work covered numerous topics, he was engaged with Catholic religious journals and in polemical work against well-known and respected intellectuals Pierre Rousselot and Karl Rahner. Conversely, Balthasar developed a relationship with Karl Barth, a prominent Protestant intellectual with impressive credentials. He gradually severed his historical connections and background with socialist Germany over a long period.

Balthasar and Barth shared various points of agreement and disagreement concerning theological topics of interest. A key difference concerned the “analogy of being” (analogia entis), where Balthasar defended Catholic teaching and its position on the matter. Historically, the analogy of being, or metaphysical analogy, is a medieval theory. The doctrine of reality is divided or organized horizontally by modes of existence in substance and accidents while vertically by God and creatures where both axes are analogically related. Barth observed that the analogy of being was central to Catholic theology and an invention of anti-Christ. It is an ancient philosophical concept going back to Aristotle, whereas, by comparison, Barth held to an “analogy of faith” (analogia fidei). As a critical method of interpretation, the “analogy of faith” is a reformed hermeneutical principle that teaches that Scripture should interpret Scripture. Barth espoused that as a guiding tenant of theology. The OT and NT writers complement one another as Scripture and as an authority of tradition to guide understanding and life. The Catholic perspective holds that the analogy of being doesn’t place philosophy over faith.

In contrast to Balthasar, Barth’s view is concerned with the certainty of knowledge of man rather than of being – or a noetic perspective rather than ontic. As there are limits to the Protestant vocabulary, Catholics will readily admit that analogy of faith is essential for meaning and interpretation. Catholics simply hold to the primacy of Scripture and its sacred status, but they are guided by tradition and Scripture and not solely by Scripture, as the Reformed position insists.

Hans von Balthasar was a defender of the Catholic faith despite his concerns and criticisms of Vatican II as he saw the Catholic Church on the same path as liberal Protestantism. Two days before Balthasar died (June 26, 1988), Pope John Paul II appointed him as a Cardinal of the Roman Catholic Church.

Joseph Cardinal Ratzinger

The single most effective figure who answered Vatican II and restored the Catholic Church’s trajectory away from an embrace of Europe’s Enlightenment worldview, from the work of Pope John XXIII, was Joseph Aloisius Ratzinger. Ratzinger was a Cardinal who studied under the philosophical and theological traditions of Augustine, Bonaventure, and Aquinas, who later became Pope from 2005 to 2013. He reportedly retired for health reasons.

Ratzinger’s objections to Vatican II were the purpose and rationale behind the Aggiornamento (“bringing up to date”) of Roman Catholic Theology. Fundamentally, he believed that the Catholic Church wasn’t a “People of God” on a pilgrimage, but the Body of Christ. The theology and metaphor for understanding the Catholic Church were Theology of the Cross and not of the Incarnation as it related to the trinity and what that meant to the Church about God. From Scripture and traditional interpretation, Ratzinger restored Church perspective away from Vatican II about the Church in the world. As an instrument of suffering and redemption, the cross put the Church at enmity with the evil in the world that Christ overcame. Despite the fact that the Church’s earlier desire to be one with humanity in the world, the scriptural and traditional role of the Church was to serve as a light of the world.

Ratzinger was also deeply concerned about both Marxism and Relativism within the Catholic Church. First Marxism with its historically violent socialist background. Then only to be eclipsed by a severe strain of the humanistic interests around moral relativity in a world that highly values freedom and democracy. It was his view that moral relativism robs faith of its claim on truth while religious pluralism became a prevailing philosophy of modern democratic societies. Ratzinger argued that democracy rests not upon relativistic convictions but fundamental human rights and dignity. Democracies based upon human rights and dignity can stand against a tyranny of the majority. Democracies that are based upon an ideology of relativism and not human rights cannot withstand social pressures to wreak havoc on large populations of people. Ratzinger spoke against Kant’s views that human reason was incapable of metaphysical cognition (which leads to moral relativism).

Conclusion

Despite the efforts of the Second Vatican Council and the Aggiornamento of the Roman Catholic Church, its successes were largely limited to the liturgy or worship practices within parishes. How the Eucharist was administered, how people as a collective were pastorally addressed, and the vernacular language over Latin during Mass held sway as reforms. However, not much else happened as many still left the Catholic Church. A decline in religious vocations also occurred, along with a decrease in the practice of sacraments to include oral confessions. Progressive Catholics would defend the spectacle of Vatican II while cautious traditionalists saw it as a surrender to modernity, liberalism, and secularism.