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The Abolition of Man

C.S. Lewis’s “The Abolition of Man” is a defense of objective values against the encroachments of subjectivism and relativism. While Lewis’s arguments are informed by various sources, the classical Greek philosophies of Plato and Aristotle can be seen as offering foundational support to many of the principles Lewis defends. The following review is an interpretive understanding of the subject matter.

Introduction

This written work by C.S. Lewis is a profound philosophical and moral critique of modern subjectivism and naturalistic reductionism. It is a short book, consisting of three interconnected essays, which aim to defend the idea of objective values and natural law against modern relativistic trends.

Christian Worldview

While the book isn’t written from a Christian perspective, it refers to biblical and Judeo-Christian principles and values in various locations throughout the text. The book consists of three interconnected essays, which aim to defend the idea of objective values and natural law against modern relativistic trends.

Men Without Chests

Lewis starts with a critique of an English textbook for students, which he feels promotes subjectivism, the idea that values and meanings are purely the product of personal feelings and have no objective basis. This subjective approach, Lewis argues, produces “men without chests” – individuals without a moral compass or appreciation for objective value and beauty. He contends that the “chest,” symbolizing the heart or moral sentiment, should be educated to resonate with universal truths and values. Such education should shape character and virtue rather than just intellect.

The Way

In the second essay, Lewis dives deeper into the philosophy underpinning his critique. He discusses the Tao, an Eastern concept, which he uses to describe the universal moral law or Natural Law that many cultures and religions have recognized throughout history. This Tao represents objective values that are inherent to human nature. These values aren’t arbitrary but grounded in a moral order, which Christianity would recognize as being rooted in the nature of God. He suggests that all major religions and ethical systems share a core understanding of these basic principles, which provide the framework for human flourishing and moral behavior.

The Abolition of Man

In the concluding essay, Lewis presents a vision of the future if society continues down the path of rejecting objective values. He warns that the “Conditioners,” those who reject traditional values in favor of constructing their own, will have the power to reshape humanity according to their whims. This could be through psychological conditioning or even biological manipulation. By rejecting the Tao and believing that they can define and create their own values, these individuals ironically become slaves to their own base instincts and desires. Lewis argues that this trajectory could lead to the “abolition” of genuine humanity. From a Christian perspective, this can be seen as the consequence of humanity turning away from God and the inherent design and purpose He established.

Throughout the book, Lewis, a Christian apologist, underscores the dangers of a world divorced from God-given objective moral standards. He argues for the timeless relevance of natural law, suggesting that humanity’s well-being is rooted in aligning with these eternal truths. The rejection of this moral framework doesn’t lead to greater freedom, as some might believe, but to the potential dehumanization of mankind.

In essence, “The Abolition of Man” is not just a critique of educational trends or philosophical shifts, but an urgent call for a return to understanding and valuing the objective moral order that Lewis, from a Christian worldview, believes is woven into the very fabric of the universe by its Creator.

Humanist Worldview

C.S. Lewis further provides a philosophical critique of subjectivism and the growing trend in the mid-20th century to view human values as mere social constructs or personal feelings, devoid of any objective foundation. From a humanist perspective, the book can be seen as a defense of universal values and the importance of cultivating moral sentiment in human beings, even if one might not necessarily agree with all the religious implications Lewis brings in.

Men Without Chests

Lewis starts by examining an English school textbook, which he believes encourages students to see values and aesthetic judgments as merely subjective. He argues that this approach risks producing individuals (“men without chests”) who lack a strong moral compass and an appreciation for things of objective value. For humanists who believe in the importance of ethics and moral cultivation, this critique underscores the necessity of education that nurtures not just intellect but also character.

The Way

Lewis delves deeper into the philosophy underpinning his arguments, introducing the concept of the Tao. While he borrows this term from Eastern philosophy, he uses it to represent what he sees as a shared, universal moral law or Natural Law recognized across various cultures and times. While humanists may not ascribe these shared values to a divine origin, many would agree with Lewis on the importance of recognizing a set of core ethical principles shared by humanity, principles that form the basis for human rights, justice, and moral reasoning.

The Abolition of Man

In this final essay, Lewis offers a cautionary vision of the future, suggesting that if society drifts away from these shared values, it might end up in the hands of “Conditioners” who, freed from any moral constraints, could manipulate humanity according to their own desires and ideologies, potentially through psychological or even biological means. For Lewis, this could lead to the “abolition” of true humanity. From a humanist viewpoint, this is a reminder of the potential dangers of unchecked scientific and technological progress without a guiding ethical framework.

Throughout “The Abolition of Man,” Lewis’s central contention is the importance of recognizing and upholding objective values that he believes are inherent to human nature. While his defense is rooted in a Christian worldview, humanists, who emphasize the importance of ethics, reason, and shared human values, can find much to appreciate in Lewis’s critique of moral relativism. The book underscores the dangers of a world that loses touch with shared human values and the importance of moral and ethical education.

To a humanist, “The Abolition of Man” might serve as a reminder of the inherent worth of every individual, the universality of certain moral principles, and the necessity of grounding advancements, be they in education, science, or technology, in a framework that prioritizes human well-being and ethical considerations.

Philosophical Alignment

Objective Reality and Forms (Plato)

Plato: Plato believed in the existence of the Forms (or Ideas), which are eternal, unchanging, and objective realities or ideals of which things in the material world are but imperfect copies. For instance, there’s an objective Form of Beauty, and individual beautiful things partake in this Form.

Lewis: This aligns with Lewis’s defense of objective values. When Lewis speaks of the universal moral law or Tao, he references a kind of objective standard beyond individual or cultural opinion, much like Plato’s Forms.

Moral Virtue and Reason (Aristotle)

Aristotle: Aristotle’s ethical theory, as presented in his “Nicomachean Ethics,” is centered on the idea of virtue and the role of reason in achieving eudaimonia (often translated as “flourishing” or “well-being”). For Aristotle, virtues are objective qualities of character that individuals should cultivate to live by reason and achieve the good life.

Lewis: Lewis’s critique of “men without chests” can be seen in light of Aristotle’s emphasis on virtue. Lewis laments an education system that fails to cultivate the “chest” or moral sentiment, leaving individuals with raw emotion (the belly) and cold reason (the head) but no guiding moral sentiment (the chest). This aligns with Aristotle’s emphasis on moral virtues as guiding principles.

Moral Universals (Both Plato and Aristotle)

Plato and Aristotle: While they had different approaches to ethics, both Plato and Aristotle believed there are objective truths about morality. For Plato, these were grounded in the Forms, while for Aristotle, they were derived from understanding human nature and purpose.

Lewis: His concept of the Tao aligns with this idea of moral universals. For Lewis, the Tao represents the universal moral truths acknowledged by various cultures across history, which he sees as evidence of their objective reality.

Rational Souls and the Hierarchical Nature of Reality

Plato and Aristotle believed in the soul’s rational aspect, distinguishing humans from other creatures. They also viewed the universe as having a hierarchical structure, with different levels of beings possessing different levels of reality or actuality.

Lewis: This aligns with Lewis’s view of human nature and his concerns about “conditioners” reshaping it. For Lewis, attempts to redefine or “condition” human nature without referencing its true, objective essence (as understood through the Tao or traditional morality) are doomed to fail and lead to dehumanization.

In summary, while C.S. Lewis doesn’t exclusively rely on Platonic or Aristotelian thought in “The Abolition of Man,” the principles of objective moral values, the cultivation of virtue, and the rational nature of humanity advocated by these ancient philosophers offer strong support to Lewis’s arguments against modern subjectivism and in favor of universal moral standards.

CHAPTER 1

Men Without Chests

“Men Without Chests” is the opening chapter of C.S. Lewis’s philosophical book, “The Abolition of Man.” “Men Without Chests” begins with Lewis critically examining an English textbook for students, which he pseudonymously names “The Green Book” and its authors as “Gaius and Titius.” This textbook, he says, embodies and promotes a certain kind of subjective relativism, which he believes is dangerous. Lewis uses the book as a starting point to delve into deeper philosophical issues.

One particular excerpt from “The Green Book” that draws Lewis’s attention involves a story about a tourist who calls a waterfall “sublime.” The authors correct the tourist, stating that he isn’t actually commenting on the waterfall itself but rather on his own feelings about it. They argue that he’s merely saying he has “sublime feelings.” Lewis takes issue with this interpretation. He believes it represents a broader educational trend, which teaches students to dismiss objective value in favor of mere subjective feelings. By doing so, Lewis argues, we create “men without chests” – that is, individuals who lack the heart, the moral compass, to discern objective value and beauty in the world.

For Lewis, the “chest” represents the seat of sentiments or moral feelings that should be cultivated and educated to align with objective virtues. It serves as a mediator between rational thought (the head) and basic, instinctual desires (the stomach). If the chest, or moral sentiment, is removed from the equation, then it’s just pure reason trying to control base desires, and this, Lewis claims, is bound to fail. We are left with either sheer egoistic pursuit or cold, detached reasoning, both of which neglect true humanity.

Lewis further criticizes modern educators for producing analytical and skeptical minds at the cost of cultivating virtue. He argues that such an education doesn’t liberate the student but instead enslaves them, for they are left without the guiding star of moral objective values. He touches upon the role of tradition, claiming that the time-tested values and sentiments that were passed down through generations were not arbitrary but grounded in something real. Modernity’s rejection of these sentiments, Lewis warns, could lead to the abolition of genuine humanity, setting the stage for the arguments he’ll develop in the subsequent chapters.

In essence, “Men Without Chests” is a critique of modern relativism and a defense of objective values. Lewis argues that we are stripping humanity of its ability to recognize and appreciate objective beauty, virtue, and morality by relegating them to mere subjective feelings. This, he believes, is a deeply dehumanizing trend.

CHAPTER 2

The Way

This chapter delves deeper into the philosophical underpinnings of his argument against moral subjectivism and his defense of objective values. Here is a summary of this chapter:

The Concept of the Tao

Lewis introduces the idea of the Tao, a term borrowed from Chinese philosophy, to represent the overarching moral and philosophical tradition that spans across various cultures and times. In this context, the Tao is akin to what many might call Natural Law or Universal Morality. It’s the collection of moral principles recognized as true and valid across diverse civilizations, regardless of their cultural, historical, or geographical differences.

The Universality of Moral Principles

Lewis argues that when we look across different cultures and civilizations, from ancient to contemporary, from East to West, we find a remarkable agreement on core moral principles. Whether it’s the ancient Egyptians, Babylonians, Hindus, Greeks, or Chinese, certain values like courage, justice, and honor are universally esteemed, while treachery, cowardice, and injustice are universally condemned.

Implications of Rejecting the Tao

If one tries to establish a system of values outside of the Tao, Lewis argues, it becomes either arbitrary or self-contradictory. One cannot justify any value or moral stance without implicitly appealing to some aspect of the Tao. For instance, any argument for a “new” morality based on the welfare of the majority ultimately relies on the pre-existing Tao principle that human welfare is good. This means that every attempt to define a morality apart from the Tao either collapses into incoherence or merely modifies the Tao, rather than replacing it.

The Limitations of Instinct

Lewis counters the argument that our moral behaviors are merely a product of instinct. While humans have various instincts (like the instinct to protect one’s young or the instinct to compete), these instincts in themselves do not tell us what we ought to do. Often, instincts conflict, and choosing between them requires some higher moral framework. This framework, which helps us judge between competing instincts, is what Lewis identifies with the Tao.

The Danger of Modern Innovations

The “innovators” of morality, those who advocate for moralities outside of the Tao, often do so believing that they’re advancing human welfare. However, Lewis warns that their innovations can often lead to disastrous consequences because they are unmoored by the tried-and-true moral realities in the Tao. Detached from this foundational moral code, they might justify all sorts of actions that, in the long run, could be detrimental to humanity.

Lewis concludes “The Way” by reemphasizing the importance of the Tao as the only solid foundation for morality. Without this grounding, any attempt at moral philosophy becomes untethered and risks leading society astray. For Lewis, the Tao isn’t just a relic of the past but is essential for humanity’s moral and philosophical health. Moreover, Lewis presents a powerful defense of traditional morality, asserting that objective moral values exist and are recognized universally across different cultures and times. In doing so, he challenges modern trends that dismiss or seek to replace these foundational principles.

CHAPTER 3

The Abolition of Man

In the third and final essay of his book, C.S. Lewis extrapolates from the philosophical and educational trends he critically traverses in the earlier essays to present a cautionary vision of the future.

Conditioning the Conditioners

Lewis begins by contemplating a future where those in power, whom he terms “Conditioners,” utilize science and technology to modify humanity’s basic nature, thus effectively controlling and reshaping the fabric of human thought and feeling. This future, for Lewis, becomes possible once the objective values and traditional morality (represented by the Tao in the previous essay) are rejected.

Moral Relativity and Power

When objective values are discarded, the Conditioners don’t have any external moral compass to guide their actions. Instead, they operate based on their own whims, desires, or what they believe is best for humanity. But, as Lewis argues, without an objective standard, notions of what’s “best” are rendered meaningless. Hence, the Conditioners’ actions become solely about power and control.

Man’s Conquest of Nature

One of Lewis’s key arguments is that, in seeking to conquer nature, man ultimately conquers himself. With advancements in science and technology, especially those that allow for the manipulation of human biology and psychology, humanity attempts to gain power over its own nature. However, this “power” is always held by some humans over others. It’s not humanity mastering nature in general, but rather some people mastering their fellow humans.

Loss of True Humanity

With the rise of the Conditioners and their unchecked power, humanity risks losing its essence. The modifications made by the Conditioners, whether biological, psychological, or societal, could strip away the very qualities that make humans unique, leading to the “abolition” of man in a metaphysical sense. Humanity might continue, but it would be a version shaped and defined by the Conditioners, detached from the traditional moral and philosophical heritage (the Tao) that, according to Lewis, has underpinned human civilizations for millennia.

The End of Progress

Lewis sets fire to the notion of “progress” as understood by the innovators and Conditioners. True progress, for him, would be moving closer to a deeper understanding and embodiment of the Tao—the universal moral law. By contrast, what the Conditioners see as progress is mere change, chaotic or dangerous change at that. By detaching from the Tao, they lead humanity into an abyss of relativism and certain destruction from impulses of the moment that result in accumulated evil and corrupted power. To more fully grasp Lewis’s point about the outcome of Conditioners’ detachment from Tao, he articulates the dire and inevitable specifics about the destruction sought along the way. More specifically, as Conditioners who self-detach from Tao pursue “progress” (which is really just arbitrary change by visceral impulses), they seek the use of magic (that does not work)and applied science to subdue reality to the wishes of men – efforts of the Conditioners accordingly described by the fitting metaphor of Man in futility digging up and mutilating the dead.

Summary

In “The Abolition of Man,” Lewis pronounces a warning that spans decades concerning the consequences of abandoning belief in objective values, and the dangers of technological and scientific power sought for the purpose of subduing natural law and reality. He argues that true human dignity, freedom, and virtue lie in alignment with the Tao—the traditional moral law—and that deviations from it, especially those driven by a desire for power and control, threaten the very essence and existence of humanity.

Throughout this essay, Lewis combines philosophical rigor with a deep concern for the trajectory of human civilization, presenting a compelling case for the timeless relevance of objective morality and the utmost necessity for humanity to reject people of influence or in positions of power who actively seek to reshape people and what they believe to serve their own impulses and evil desires.

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In the Lord I Take Refuge

By James Austin in Monographs

In the book “In The LORD I Take Refuge,” the author, Dane Ortlund, wrote a commentary alongside each chapter of the book of Psalms. As a Presbyterian pastor with a Ph.D., he offers reflections and observations of substantive value about the Psalter one chapter at a time. The book is with the ESV text of the Psalms prepared in a format where 150 devotions are presented to readers with the author’s encouragement, exhortation, rebuke, and the occasional call to repentance. He often echoes the Psalmists’ sentiments about the lovingkindness of the LORD through song and poetry. He also explores the range of literary meaning as the Psalms are sometimes imprecatory, messianic, prophetic, and musical in lyric and instruction. The range of inspired material prepared throughout the Psalms is covered in a practical way made relevant to readers immersed in everyday life.

The consistent pattern throughout the text is to bring practical application to the lives of believers. In a sense, this book is a work of ministry from the author to comfort readers, challenge them, and remind them of what God meant through the writers of Scripture. This book is not an academic work of interest but a personal journey of the heart and mind. To reflect on what God says to the reader about highly relevant and pertinent topics of interest. Praise, hardships, enmity, comfort, assurance, and promise are touched upon without scripture references elsewhere but are kept to the message within each Psalm at hand. The title chosen for the book is appropriate because it anchors the reader into the thread of meaning throughout the devotional commentary. In The LORD I Take Refuge covers a lot of ground as it is a call and response, or inform and response way to which the material is absorbed day by day. The book’s central point that the author returns to is the refuge of the LORD as the only true and lasting means of safety, protection, and peace from the issues of life with deep spiritual relevance.

The book’s title draws upon Psalm 11:1 phrase, “In the Lord I Take Refuge.” While the majority text, KJV and NKJV, reference the term “trust” instead of “refuge,” the critical text makes use of the translation rendering “refuge” from the original Hebrew Word defined as a place of safety or shelter. This poetic language brings to mind an image of withdrawal and separation to a place of security for protection. The title aligns with what the author intended to convey as he sought to capture what the Psalmists wrote as a body of work. There wasn’t attention placed on the structural or technical features of the text, as the book is intended as a daily companion of both practical and spiritual messages.

The author also uses the writings of historical figures within early Christianity, including the Reformers and the Puritans, to highlight substantive meaning about perspectives rendered by the Psalmists. In support of the author’s reading and comprehension of the subject matter, with its authoritative scriptural weight, correlating and pertinent perspectives from historical people of influence help drive home the points he continues to offer. The wide array of perspectives Ortlund presents from these historical people of God goes a long way to substantiate the credibility of his observations and perspective. The author likely has much to say about the scriptural references, prayers, and reflections of the Patristic fathers, the Reformers, and the Puritans. The wide use of influential people throughout history isn’t for analytical purposes but for their unique perspectives from a time and setting set apart from post-modern society.

As Crossway is the publisher of this devotional book (ISBN: 978-1-4335-7770-3; hardcover, 409 pages), it is suitable for use among numerous people within the Reformed and Renewed traditions of the universal church. While the reflections about each Psalm are from a Reformed perspective, it is evangelical in tone and delivery without compromising the truth and intended meaning of Scripture. While it isn’t recommended that devotional time should be dedicated exclusively to the Psalter, it is a valuable companion to Scripture during personal time in the Word, during family worship and reading, or as a component of private liturgy.

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Mere Christianity

By James Austin in Monographs

Mere Christianity is a profound work of theological literature written by British writer and lay theologian C.S. Lewis. First published in 1942, the book is a timeless and influential work in Christian apologetics. Much of its content originated from a series of BBC radio talks made by Lewis during World War II, from 1941 to 1944. The book is a compelling testament to Lewis’s thoughtfulness, creativity, and ability to articulate complex theological concepts in a manner that is engaging and accessible to everyone.

Having completely read through this book, it is obvious how it came to be a foundational text for many individuals exploring Christian belief. Especially as its significance lies not only in its clear, inviting prose but also in the scope and depth of its thought. Lewis’s intellectual approach to the Christian faith and his rational arguments for its principles and tenets are aimed at a broad audience. He hoped to describe a “mere” Christianity, a set of core beliefs that all Christians, regardless of their denominational background, could agree upon.

Introduction

Mere Christianity is divided into four parts, each addressing a distinct area of Christian belief and practice. The first section, titled “Right and Wrong as a Clue to the Meaning of the Universe,” proposes the existence of a universal moral law that all humans innately understand. Lewis argues that this moral law cannot result from biological or social evolution but must come from a divine source, thereby providing a moral argument for the existence of God.

The second part, “What Christians Believe,” delves deeper into Christian doctrine. Here, Lewis explores the nature of good and evil, the concepts of free will, and the Christian understanding of God and the universe. He discusses the concept of dualism and then introduces the Christian understanding of God’s nature, presenting Jesus not merely as a good moral teacher, but as the Son of God, thereby addressing the crux of Christian belief.

“Christian Behavior,” the third part of the book, elaborates on the practical application of Christianity in daily life. Lewis talks about Christian morality in terms of personal ethics and the broader context of justice, charity, forgiveness, and the importance of love, amongst others. He illuminates the concept of ‘the cardinal virtues,’ the theological virtues, and discusses topics like sexual morality, marriage, forgiveness, and the love of God.

In the final section, “Beyond Personality: Or First Steps in the Doctrine of the Trinity,” Lewis explores the concept of the Trinity and explains the transformation process of a human becoming a part of the “Body of Christ.” This section presents some of Christian doctrine’s more complex theological aspects, which Lewis simplifies with brilliant and relatable analogies.

Throughout Mere Christianity, Lewis’s style is conversational yet scholarly, with a thought-provoking approach that invites believers and skeptics to examine their beliefs. The book uniquely blends philosophical argumentation, theological instruction, and spiritual encouragement. With his literary talent and depth of understanding, Lewis provides a persuasive case for the Christian faith.

At the same time, Lewis carefully avoids delving into the divisive specifics of different Christian denominations, focusing instead on the shared tenets of the faith. This is the ‘mere’ Christianity he proposes – a vision of faith that aims to be inclusive rather than exclusive. This focus on shared belief has helped the book gain wide acceptance among Christians of many different traditions.

Mere Christianity is more than just a book; it is an immersive experience in understanding one’s faith. Whether you are a devoted believer, a skeptic exploring the Christian faith, or someone interested in religious philosophy, this classic work provides deep insights and promotes thoughtful reflection. Regardless of your perspective, Mere Christianity invites you on a journey of exploration and discovery that has the potential to transform your understanding of Christianity and the world.

Book I

RIGHT AND WRONG AS A CLUE TO THE MEANING OF THE UNIVERSE

Book One of Mere Christianity begins with Lewis’s exploration of morality and the concept of right and wrong, which he uses as a clue to discerning the existence and nature of God. He argues that moral law, the internal code of conduct recognized universally by humans, points to a lawgiver—God.

The first chapter, “The Law of Human Nature,” introduces the notion that humans have an innate sense of right and wrong, an idea that transcends cultural differences. Despite varied societal norms and customs, people universally understand fundamental concepts of fairness, justice, and moral conduct. Lewis argues that this moral law or ‘Law of Human Nature’ suggests the existence of a moral lawgiver, or God.

In “Some Objections,” the second chapter, Lewis refutes the notion that morality is a social or biological construct. He suggests that while instincts may often guide our actions, the decisions we make when instincts conflict reveal a deeper moral law. He also contends that societal norms, though influential, don’t define morality because societies themselves can be corrupt or unjust.

“The Reality of the Law” is the third chapter. Here, Lewis discusses how people often fail to follow the moral code they recognize, a state he terms ‘quarreling.’ Quarreling, he argues, is an implicit recognition of a universal moral law because it entails appealing to an accepted standard of fairness when one feels wronged. Lewis implies that the regularity of quarreling in human interaction signifies the universal reality of moral law.

In the fourth chapter, “What Lies Behind the Law,” Lewis moves from discussing moral law’s existence to speculation about the universe’s nature. He proposes two views: the Materialist view, which states that the universe is a random occurrence without a higher power, and the Religious view, which argues that a mind orchestrates the universe. Lewis suggests that the existence of the moral law, which does not fit into the mechanics of the survival of the fittest, supports the religious view.

“We Have Cause to Be Uneasy” is the last chapter of the first book. Lewis concludes that God, as the moral lawgiver, must be righteous and just, implying that humans, who frequently disobey this moral law, have cause to be concerned. Despite this, he also points to the sense of comfort people find in recognizing this moral lawgiver, suggesting that the Christian journey provides hope.

By the end of Book One, Lewis lays a foundation for the Christian faith by arguing that humanity’s shared, universal morality indicates a shared source of this morality, a higher power or God. According to Lewis, moral law is not a creation of humanity but an indication of the divine within and beyond us. This line of reasoning establishes a context for Lewis’s subsequent discussion of Christian doctrine and beliefs in the remaining sections of this book.

Book II

WHAT CHRISTIANS BELIEVE

Book 2, titled “What Christians Believe,” elucidates key Christian doctrines, making them accessible to his lay readership. His central themes include the nature of God, the concept of the Trinity, the nature of good and evil, and the figure of Jesus Christ. Lewis begins this book by clarifying what God is not. He argues against the popular notion of God as a vague spiritual force, instead asserting the Christian belief in a personal God, the sort of God who has a will, can love, and can relate to us as individuals. This is the foundation of Lewis’s theistic view, where God is both the cause and the purpose of the universe.

From there, Lewis moves on to the question of the nature of good and evil, arguing against a dualistic interpretation of the universe. Dualists, according to Lewis, see the world as a battleground of equal opposing forces of good and evil. But Lewis maintains that evil is not a thing in its own right, but rather a perversion or corruption of good. Evil is parasitic on good and is only possible when good things go wrong. In this perspective, God is entirely good, and evil originated from free will when creatures chose to misuse their God-given freedom. Lewis stresses that, despite evil’s apparent power, it is ultimately subordinate to God’s goodness.

The problem of evil leads Lewis to the figure of Christ. He addresses the issue of why, if God is good, the world is filled with suffering. Lewis introduces the idea of the Fall, the moment when human beings first chose to turn away from God. According to Lewis, this choice introduced sin and suffering into the world. Yet, God, in his mercy, offered a solution to the problem of sin: Jesus Christ.

Lewis then takes on one of his most famous arguments: “Liar, Lunatic, or Lord,” often paraphrased as “Mad, Bad, or God.” Lewis argues against those who would relegate Jesus to the status of a great moral teacher but deny his divinity. Lewis points out that Jesus made claims that would, if not true, make him either a madman or a devil. He claims that he will forgive people their sins; he says that he has always existed; he says he is coming to judge the world at the end of time. No one who made such claims could be considered a great moral teacher but not divine. Thus, we are left with three options: Jesus was a liar (a deliberate fraud), a lunatic (a man of unsound mind), or he was who he said he was: Lord.

In the final chapters, Lewis grapples with the Christian concept of the Trinity. Lewis analogizes the Trinity with the dimensions of space. Just as a single dimension can contain an infinite number of lines, and two dimensions can contain an infinite number of lines and shapes, so too, he argues, can God be both three and one. The three persons of the Trinity – Father, Son, and Holy Spirit – are distinct, but they are all contained within the oneness of God.

Lewis continues to use everyday language and familiar analogies to unpack the essential beliefs of the Christian faith. His approachable style and thoughtful arguments continue to make this book a valuable resource for both Christians seeking to deepen their understanding of their faith and skeptics exploring Christianity.

Book III

CHRISTIAN BEHAVIOR

The third book, “Christian Behavior,” lays out Lewis’s vision of what ethical conduct, under the influence of Christian teachings, should look like. In this book, Lewis explores different virtues and vices, the nature of morality, and the character of a ‘good man’ according to Christian morality. Here Lewis begins by suggesting that Christian morality is like a map. Just as maps help us navigate the physical world, so Christian morals help us navigate the spiritual world. He then proceeds to discuss the ‘Cardinal Virtues’, which are wisdom, courage, temperance, and justice. These virtues are not exclusive to Christianity and are recognized by various philosophical traditions as key aspects of good moral character.

The conversation then shifts to social morality. Lewis contends that Christianity does not dictate a specific political or economic system. Instead, it sets forth general principles that should guide human interactions. He argues that Christianity encourages a love that extends beyond personal affections. This is ‘Agape,’ an unconditional love that expects nothing in return, a love that should be extended to all, including enemies.

Lewis also emphasizes the importance of sexual morality, devoting a significant portion of this book to the subject. He clarifies that he does not see sex as evil, but argues that, like all powerful desires, it can be dangerous when not properly controlled. He is critical of the prudishness about sex and the modern casual attitude toward it. Lewis supports traditional Christian teachings about marriage and sexual purity, arguing that casual sex treats people as objects rather than as individuals with inherent dignity.

In subsequent chapters, Lewis explores a variety of other ethical topics. He argues that the Christian virtues of hope and charity should guide all aspects of life, including work, play, and even laughter. He explains that Christianity teaches the importance of individual morality and the necessity of a just and compassionate society.

He then moves to the topics of forgiveness and pride. Lewis contends that forgiveness is a crucial virtue for Christians, even when it’s hard. He acknowledges that forgiving those who’ve wronged us can be extremely difficult but asserts that it’s a necessary part of following Christ. He considers pride the ‘great sin,’ the root of all evil, and humility its antidote.

Book III concludes with a chapter on faith, in which Lewis distinguishes between the faith that affirms belief in Christian doctrines and the faith that continues to trust God even in the face of difficulties and doubts. Lewis presents the moral and ethical standards set forth by Christianity rationally and logically, aiming to demonstrate that these standards, while challenging, are designed for the good of individuals and societies alike. His discussions are not solely based on faith; they also integrate philosophical, psychological, and social perspectives to examine Christian morality comprehensively.

Book IV

BEYOND PERSONALITY; OR FIRST STEPS IN THE DOCTRINE OF THE TRINITY

In this final book, Lewis investigates the nature of God as a trinity, a concept central to Christian doctrine but often difficult to understand. He admits that human language is inadequate to express this complex idea fully, but still, he uses accessible metaphors and analogies to give us a glimpse of the idea.

Lewis starts by discussing the distinction between begetting and making, which he uses to explain the relationship within the Godhead further. God the Father “begets” God the Son, but doesn’t “make” Him, in the sense that human parents beget their children, but a carpenter makes a table. In the former, the offspring share the same nature as the parents, while in the latter, the creation is fundamentally different from the creator. Hence, Jesus, the Son of God, shares the same divine nature as God the Father, and isn’t a created being.

Next, Lewis explores the idea of God as a timeless entity existing in the eternal present. God isn’t limited by past, present, and future constraints in the way humans are. As such, he explains that when Christians talk about Christ being begotten “before all worlds,” it doesn’t mean there was a time when He wasn’t. It means that Christ is eternally begotten, always coming from the Father but never separate from Him.

In addition, Lewis discusses the concept of the Holy Spirit and His role in the lives of Christians. Lewis presents the Holy Spirit as the very life of God living within believers, transforming them into the likeness of Christ. This transformative process, which he calls “good infection,” is the crux of Christian morality and spirituality.

Furthermore, Lewis addresses the importance of prayer and the Christian’s direct interaction with God. He emphasizes that prayer isn’t a way of making God do what we want but a process of learning to align ourselves with what He wants. He likens God to a new dimension of existence that humans can’t comprehend, and states that through prayer, a divine life enters and transforms us.

Toward the end of the book, Lewis discusses the paradoxical concept of surrendering to gain, arguing that a person can only find true life and self by giving it up to God. He also clarifies misconceptions about God’s omnipresence, asserting that God isn’t spread thinly across the universe, but entirely present at every point of it.

Lastly, he grapples with the idea of God’s joy, which results from our unity with Him. Our true nature, he says, is derived from God, and we are most ourselves when we align with His will. Lewis doesn’t aim to provide a comprehensive or exact explanation of the complex doctrine of the Trinity. Instead, he uses his unique approach to make these profound ideas more accessible and relatable, guiding readers to understand the Christian conception of God and the transformative nature of His relationship with humanity.

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The Pilgrim’s Progress

By James Austin in Monographs

Having read The Pilgrim’s Progress by John Bunyan, it is helpful to understand Bunyan’s background as the author of this widely-known book. The Pilgrim’s Progress is a long-time classic about living as a Christian throughout one’s lifetime. Pilgrim’s Progress is a comprehensive allegorical look at believers’ physical and spiritual hardships en route to Heaven, or in the Pilgrim’s case, the Celestial City. From the time of conversion to entry into the Celestial City, numerous detours, afflictions, and setbacks involved captivity and suffering unique to the Pilgrims in the story but still relevant to believers today. While each stage of the Pilgrim’s Progress is meant to mirror a believer’s faith journey, numerous scriptural principles are interwoven throughout the narrative. While believers at the time of Bunyan have a better way of relating to the setting and primitive nature of the story, the protagonist encounters still offer timeless lessons, warnings, and examples to follow.

Introduction

John Bunyan was a prominent English Puritan writer and devoted follower of Christ who lived during the 17th century. He was born in 1628 in Elstow, Bedfordshire, England. Bunyan’s family was of modest means, and his father, Thomas Bunyan, worked as a tinker, repairing pots and pans. Bunyan’s early life was marked by the turbulent events of the English Civil War, which erupted in 1642. He was raised in a period of political and religious upheaval, with the country divided between the Royalists and the Parliamentarians. As a young man, Bunyan served briefly as a soldier in the Parliamentary army during the war. After the war, Bunyan struggled with a deep spiritual crisis and feelings of guilt over his moral failings. He eventually found peace in the Puritan faith and became a committed follower of Christ in their vein of devotion and worship. Puritans pursued personal holiness and a strong work ethic and held to the absolute authority of the Bible.

In 1653, Bunyan joined a Puritan congregation in Bedford, England, led by John Gifford. This congregation consisted of Protestant Christians who refused to conform to the unbiblical practices of the Church of England, which was the State established church at the time. Bunyan’s religious convictions and objections to tradition led him to become a preacher, and he began delivering sermons and exhortations to fellow believers. However, in 1660, the political climate shifted with the restoration of the monarchy under King Charles II. The new government’s anti-Christian views were propagated through the Church of England, and Bunyan faced persecution for fellowship with other believers without the consent of the Church of England. He was arrested in November 1660 and spent twelve years in prison. Bunyan wrote The Pilgrim’s Progress during his imprisonment, published in 1678. The book, an allegorical tale of a Christian’s journey toward salvation, became immensely popular and remains a classic of English literature.

After his release from prison in 1672, Bunyan returned to Bedford and resumed activities befitting a Christian. He continued to write numerous other highly regarded works, including theological treatises, fictional novels, and spiritual reflections. Bunyan’s works have been in circulation throughout Christendom for centuries. Moreover, John Bunyan’s contributions as a writer and preacher made him one of the most influential figures of the Puritan movement. His works continue to be studied and deeply valued for their biblical insights, spiritual wisdom, literary value, and historical significance.

Review – Part I

“The Pilgrim’s Progress from This World, to That Which Is to Come” is an allegorical novel written by John Bunyan and published in 1678. Part The book has been widely translated and is considered one of the most significant works of English literature. In part 1 of the book, the story is centered on a man named Christian and his journey from his hometown, the “City of Destruction” (representing earthly existence), to the “Celestial City” (representing Heaven). The story begins in the City of Destruction, where a man named Christian lives. One day, he finds a book (the Bible) that warns of the city’s impending doom. Tormented by this knowledge and burdened by a heavy load (representing his sins), Christian leaves his wife and children to set off on a pilgrimage to the Celestial City, the only place of safety.

Along his journey, Christian encounters various characters who either aid or obstruct his Progress. Evangelist, the first character he meets, instructs him to head for the Wicket Gate, and there he will be told how to reach the Celestial City. However, he first mistakenly follows the advice of a character named Mr. Worldly Wiseman and heads towards the village of Morality to seek relief from his burden from a man named Mr. Legality. However, after much distress endured by Christian, Evangelist redirects him, setting him back on the right path toward the Wicket Gate. At the Wicket Gate, Christian is admitted by Goodwill who instructs him to follow the straight path and not to deviate. He journeys onward and reaches the House of the Interpreter, where he is shown various pictures and scenes that symbolize spiritual truths.

The journey is fraught with peril, and Christian passes through places like the Slough of Despond, where he almost drowns in the mire of his guilt and doubts, and Vanity Fair, a place of worldly temptations, horrific abuses, and deadly persecution. He climbs the Hill of Difficulty, survives the Valley of the Shadow of Death, and later fights the monster Apollyon (allegorical of Satan or a demon figure).

Christian also meets several other characters, such as Faithful and Talkative, who either represent good qualities or pitfalls along the spiritual journey. Faithful is martyred in Vanity Fair, showing the price of faith in the face of worldly opposition. Eventually, Christian and his new companion, Hopeful, come to the Delectable Mountains, which the Lord of the Celestial City owns. Here they are refreshed and warned of coming difficulties. They are shown sights such as a man who could look no way but downwards and the land of Conceit, which is ruled by a tyrant named Despair who holds people captive.

Christian and Hopeful continue their journey and are trapped by the Giant Despair in the Doubting Castle. However, Christian remembers he has a key called Promise, which opens any door in Doubting Castle, and they manage to escape.

Ultimately, Christian and Hopeful reach the Celestial City, but it’s only accessible by crossing the River of Death. Christian is initially afraid to cross but is encouraged by Hopeful. As they cross, Christian is nearly drowned by doubts and fears, but he makes it to the other side, where he is welcomed into the Celestial City, shedding his burden once and for all.

In essence, “Pilgrim’s Progress” Part 1 is an allegory for the Christian journey of faith from the burden of sin and destruction to salvation in the Celestial City, a representation of Heaven. The narrative explores themes of faith, persistence, and redemption through various trials, tribulations, and encounters.

Review – Part II

The Pilgrim’s Progress Part II continues John Bunyan’s allegorical narrative, following the journey of Christiana, Christian’s wife, who is motivated by her husband’s successful pilgrimage and the invitation from Evangelist to follow in his footsteps. She decides to journey to the Celestial City, taking her four sons and a neighbor, Mercy, with her. Although the core allegorical structure remains similar to Part 1 — a journey from the City of Destruction to the Celestial City — the narrative is expanded upon by including new characters and incidents, providing a more nuanced perspective on the Christian faith. Part 2 begins with Christiana, who, after receiving a divine revelation in a dream, regrets not having embarked on the journey with her husband. Convinced by her dream and her neighbor, Mrs. Timorous, Christiana decides to follow in Christian’s footsteps, taking their four sons (Matthew, Samuel, Joseph, and James) along with her.

In Part II, Bunyan expands on many themes from the first part, providing additional nuance and depth. He also introduces several new characters and emphasizes the role of women in the Christian faith, reflecting meaningful contributions complementary to the religious and social landscape of his time. Christiana’s journey begins when Secret, a divine messenger, delivers a letter to her. Inspired by the letter and disturbed by dreams of Judgment Day, she decides to set off for the Celestial City with her children. Accordingly, Mercy, Christiana’s young neighbor, asks to join her, despite knowing the journey could be perilous. However, Christiana and her group remain resolute and continue. The journey is not easy, and they have to navigate several challenges and obstacles, such as the Slough of Despond and the Hill Difficulty.

Like Christian in the first part, Christiana and her companions also stop at the Interpreter’s House, where they are given guidance and shown various allegorical pictures and scenes. The House proves to be a place of learning and reflection, helping travelers understand their spiritual journey better. The journey continues, and the group visits several significant sites, such as the Cross, the Sepulchre, and the Hill of Difficulty.

Under Great-Heart’s guidance, the group overcomes many physical and spiritual challenges. These include the fight with Giant Despair at Doubting Castle and the crossing of the Enchanted Ground. Through these trials, the pilgrims learn about the power of faith and the importance of perseverance. In contrast to the first part, the second part greatly emphasizes community and fellowship. Christiana’s group grows throughout the journey, welcoming new members like Standfast and Valiant-for-Truth. These characters contribute their unique insights, reinforcing the idea that all believers have a role in the body of Christ.

Finally, Christiana, Mercy, and the remaining group reach the River of Death, the final barrier before the Celestial City. Christiana crosses first and is joyously welcomed into the City. The others follow each greeted with a similar celebration. The journey of each pilgrim ends in successful entry into the Celestial City, marking the completion of their spiritual journey. “Pilgrim’s Progress Part II” is a rich and complex allegory detailing Christiana’s spiritual journey. Bunyan uses the characters and obstacles Christiana encounters to explore deeper themes of faith, perseverance, fellowship, and the nature of the Christian journey. In contrast to the first part, it provides a broader picture of the Christian experience, reflecting diverse experiences and insights.

Pilgrims’ Locations

The City of Destruction: The journey begins here, which represents the unenlightened world. Christian is distressed by the burden (sin) on his back and is seeking salvation.
Slough of Despond: Christian falls into this swamp of despondency and despair, which represents feelings of guilt and fear due to the recognition of sin.
House of the Interpreter: Here, Christian learns important lessons through several visions and allegorical figures that Interpreter shows him.
Cross and Sepulchre: At this point, Christian loses his burden (sin) at the sight of the Cross, symbolizing the redemption and forgiveness of sins through Christ’s sacrifice.
Hill Difficulty: Christian’s faith is tested when he needs to climb this difficult hill.
Palace Beautiful: Christian receives hospitality, rest, and further instruction in the Christian faith at this place, symbolizing the Church.
Valley of Humiliation: Here, Christian faces and defeats the monster Apollyon, representing Satan.
Valley of the Shadow of Death: Christian continues his journey through this treacherous valley, enduring dangers and darkness.
Vanity Fair: This town represents the worldly temptations. Christian and Faithful, his companion by this point, are put on trial for their beliefs.
Doubting Castle and Giant Despair: Christian and Hopeful, another companion after Faithful’s death, are imprisoned and tortured by Giant Despair, but they escape using the key of Promise.
Delectable Mountains: These represent the joys and comforts of the life of grace. Christian and Hopeful are refreshed and receive more instructions for their journey here.
Enchanted Ground: A dangerous place where drowsiness and laziness threaten to halt the pilgrims’ progress.
Land of Beulah: This land represents spiritual abundance and rest before the final leg of the journey. Here, Christian and Hopeful prepare themselves for their crossing of the River of Death.
River of Death: Christian and Hopeful cross this river to finally reach the Celestial City, symbolizing the passing from life into eternity.
The Celestial City (Heaven): Christian finally reaches his destination, the place of eternal salvation and joy. He and Hopeful are welcomed with trumpets and a chorus of angels.

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Confessions by Saint Augustine

By James Austin in Monographs

A couple of weeks ago, I finished reading Confessions by Augustine. It was the first written work of Augustine I read as a whole, and it is a classic on a personal reading list of patristics. I’ve read sections of Augustine’s more comprehensive work in the City of God for research purposes on topics of theological interest. So there weren’t expectations going into the reading, but only an impression about who Augustine was and what others said and wrote about him. He is cited a lot and followed closely by devoted followers of Christ Jesus among all traditions of Christianity. Catholics often claim Augustine as an early Catholic church father for a time as he served within its early traditions.

The following is a synthesis of Confessions, a book-by-book summary produced by personal research that corresponds to my first reading of Augustine’s entire work.

INTRODUCTION

Augustine of Hippo (354-430 AD), also known as Saint Augustine, was a theologian, philosopher, and bishop of the North African city of Hippo Regius, located in present-day Annaba, Algeria. He is one of the most significant figures in the development of Western Christianity and a key figure in the history of Western philosophy. Augustine was initially a follower of Manichaeism and later Neoplatonism. Still, after converting to Christianity in 386 AD, he became a prominent Christian theologian and eventually the Bishop of Hippo in 396 AD.

Augustine’s writings, including his autobiographical work “Confessions” and his magnum opus “The City of God,” have profoundly impacted the development of Christian doctrine and the Western intellectual tradition. He tackled various theological issues, such as original sin, predestination, the nature of the soul, and the relationship between faith and reason. Augustine’s ideas have influenced many subsequent philosophers and theologians, including Thomas Aquinas, Martin Luther, and John Calvin.

In addition to his theological works, Augustine made important contributions to the fields of ethics, epistemology, and political philosophy. His ideas on the relationship between church and state, the nature of the just war, and the role of government in maintaining peace and order have had a lasting impact on Western political thought.

BOOK I – Childhood

In Book 1 of Confessions, Augustine begins his spiritual autobiography by addressing God and reflecting on the nature of sin and human frailty. The book primarily focuses on his early childhood, exploring how even as a young child, he was prone to sin and driven by desires that led him astray.

Augustine describes his early years in the Roman African city of Thagaste (present-day Souk Ahras, Algeria). He notes that he was born into a Christian family, but was not baptized as an infant due to the cultural practice of waiting until later in life. He also provides an account of his education, recounting his learning of Latin, reading, and writing, as well as his exposure to Roman literature.

Throughout Book 1, Augustine frequently returns to the theme of sin, illustrating it with anecdotes from his childhood. He mentions instances of selfishness, deceit, and disobedience, highlighting the sinful nature inherent in humans. A famous example he provides is the story of stealing pears from a neighbor’s tree, not out of hunger or necessity, but simply for the thrill of doing something forbidden.

Augustine also delves into the topic of human desire and its role in leading people away from God. He explores the idea of “concupiscence,” which he defines as disordered desires or lusts that distract individuals from pursuing God.

Overall, Book 1 of Confessions serves as an introduction to Augustine’s life and thought, setting the stage for his journey towards faith and his eventual conversion to Christianity. It highlights themes of sin, desire, and the human inclination towards wrongdoing, all of which will be further explored in subsequent books.

Book I Synopsis

He admires God’s Majesty and is inflamed with a deep desire to praise him
Man hath his being from God; and that God is in man, and man in God
God is wholly everywhere and is not by parts contained by the Creature
An admirable description of God’s Attributes
He prays for the forgiveness of sins and the Love of God
That he hath received all blessings from God: and how he hath been preserved by him
That even his infancy was subject to sin
A description of his childhood
The hatred that children bear for Learning, and their Love for Playing
How, for his play, he neglected his Parents’ Commandments
How he fell sick and how recovering, his Baptism was deferred
He is forced to his Book: which God turned for good purpose
With what studies he was chiefly delighted
Of the Greek and Latin Tongues
His Prayer to God
Against lascivious fables
The way of exercising youth in repeating and varying verses
That Men care more about observing the Rules of Grammar than the Laws of God
How he was more careful to avoid Barbarisms of Speech than the corruption of Manners
He thanked God for his Benefits

BOOK II – Teen Years

In Book 2 of Confessions, Augustine continues his spiritual autobiography, shifting his focus to his teenage years and examining the nature of lust, the consequences of sinful behavior, and the longing for God’s grace.

During this period of his life, Augustine admits to being heavily influenced by his sensual desires, driven by lust and the impulses of his youth. He recounts the story of stealing pears from a neighbor’s tree, an act that has become emblematic of his exploration of sin. Augustine emphasizes that the theft was motivated not by hunger or need, but by the sheer enjoyment of wrongdoing, which reveals the depths of human depravity.

Augustine also discusses his education and his early interest in literature and rhetoric. Although he acknowledges the value of acquiring knowledge, he criticizes the fact that his studies were often guided by ambition and the pursuit of worldly success, rather than by a desire for truth or closeness to God.

Throughout Book 2, Augustine reflects on the role of human will and its susceptibility to temptation. He recognizes that even though he was aware of the difference between right and wrong, he often chose to act against his better judgment, succumbing to temptation and sin. This realization leads him to contemplate the need for God’s grace to guide and transform human will, allowing individuals to overcome their sinful inclinations.

In summary, Book 2 of Confessions delves into Augustine’s teenage years, examining the pervasiveness of sin, the weakness of human will, and the necessity of God’s grace. It reveals how Augustine’s early experiences with desire and ambition eventually led him to seek a deeper understanding of God and the nature of human existence.

Book II Synopsis

He enters upon the Years and Sins of his Youth
He accuses his youth spent in the heat of Lustfulness
Of his Travels for his Studies’ sake and his Parents’ Purpose in it
How he robbed a Pear-tree
No man sins, but provoked by some Cause
All those things which under the show of Good invite us to sin, are in God alone, to be found True and perfect
He returns thanks to God for remitting these sins, and for keeping him from many others
What he loved in that his theft
Bad Company is infectious
Whatsoever is good, is in God

BOOK III – Teen Years and Early Adulthood

In Book 3 of “Confessions,” Augustine recounts his time as a young man in Carthage, where he pursued his education and grappled with the seductions of worldly desires. This book explores Augustine’s intellectual and moral development, highlighting the influence of Manicheism, a dualistic religion he embraced for nearly a decade, and his struggle with lust.

Upon arriving in Carthage, Augustine is confronted with a city filled with temptations and distractions. He becomes entangled in a passionate love affair and struggles with the allure of lust and sexual desire, which he later sees as a significant obstacle to his spiritual journey.

Augustine also encounters Manicheism, a religious movement that offers an appealing explanation for the existence of evil in the world. Manicheism posits a dualistic cosmos in which two opposing forces, Good (the spiritual realm) and Evil (the material realm), are engaged in an eternal struggle. Augustine is initially drawn to this religion, as it seemingly addresses his concerns about the problem of evil and provides a framework for understanding the human condition. However, over time, he becomes disillusioned with Manicheism due to its intellectual inconsistencies and the inability of its adherents to answer his deeper philosophical questions.

Despite his preoccupation with worldly desires and his involvement with Manicheism, Augustine never loses sight of his thirst for truth and wisdom. He continues to study and explore various intellectual disciplines, including rhetoric, philosophy, and the works of Cicero. His search for truth eventually leads him to discover the beauty and depth of the Christian faith.

In summary, Book 3 of “Confessions” narrates Augustine’s experiences in Carthage, as he wrestles with the temptations of worldly desires, grapples with the allure of Manicheism, and pursues his passion for knowledge. This period of his life lays the groundwork for the profound intellectual and spiritual transformations that await him in the years to come.

Book III Synopsis

He is caught with Love, which he hunted after
Of Stage Plays
His conversation with young Lawyers
How Tully’s Hortensius provoked him to study Philosophy
He sets lightly by the Holy Scriptures because of the simplicity of the style
How he was ensnared by the Manichees
The absurd doctrine of the Manichees
Heinous offenses what be, and how punished
The difference that is betwixt Sins, and betwixt the Judgment of God and Men
He speaks again of the Fig-tree, and derides the Manichees’ foolish conceits about it
His Mother’s Dream
The answer his Mother received from a Bishop, concerning his Conversion

BOOK IV – Early Adult Years

In Book 4 of Confessions, Augustine focuses on his early adult years, specifically his time as a teacher of rhetoric in Carthage and his growing dissatisfaction with the Manichaean religion. He also addresses themes such as ambition, pride, and grief as he delves into his personal relationships and professional life.

During this period, Augustine’s ambition and desire for worldly success drive him to become a successful teacher of rhetoric. However, he acknowledges that his pursuit of material wealth and fame often distracts him from seeking deeper truth and genuine wisdom.

Augustine discusses his continued involvement with Manichaeism, revealing that he began to find inconsistencies in its teachings and became increasingly disillusioned with its explanations of good and evil. As his skepticism grows, he starts to search for a more satisfying spiritual framework.

One of the central events in Book 4 is the death of a close friend, which deeply affects Augustine and causes him to reflect on the impermanence of life and the nature of human attachment. He confronts his own grief and recognizes that his attachment to temporal, earthly things ultimately leaves him unfulfilled and unsatisfied. This realization further motivates him to seek lasting truth and happiness beyond the material world.

Book 4 of Confessions portrays Augustine’s growing awareness of the limitations of worldly ambitions and the inadequacies of the Manichaean religion. Through his personal experiences and his exploration of loss, he becomes increasingly aware of the necessity for a more profound understanding of life and a closer relationship with God. This period in his life marks an important turning point in his spiritual journey, setting the stage for the subsequent phases of his conversion.

Book IV Synopsis

How long, and what ways he seduced others
He teaches Rhetoric, and despiseth a Wizard who promised him the Victory
Giving himself to Astrology, he is reclaimed by an ancient Physician
He relates the sickness and Baptism of his Friend, whom himself had affected with Heresy: he grievously laments his Death
Of Tears in our Prayers for, and Bewailing of, the Thing Beloved
He tells with what great Affection he loved his Friend
The impatientness of grief constrains us to shift our dwellings
Time cures Sorrow
The comparing of Human Friendship with Divine
All Beauty is from God, who is to be prayed for all
All things are created mutable in themselves, and immutable in God
Love of the Creatures is not forbidden, provided that in those which please us, God be loved
Love, whence it comes
Of his Book of Fair and Fit
How his Understanding being overshadowed with corporeal images, he could not discern the spiritual
The admirable Aptness to Learning, and the great Understanding St. Augustine had

BOOK V – Rome, Milan, and Manichaeism

In Book 5 of Confessions, Augustine recounts his departure from Carthage to Rome and then his appointment as a teacher of rhetoric in Milan, Italy. This period in his life is marked by significant events and encounters that play a crucial role in shaping his intellectual and spiritual development.

One key event during this time is Augustine’s disillusionment with Manichaeism. While teaching in Rome, he meets a famous Manichaean bishop named Faustus, hoping to find answers to his doubts about the religion. However, Augustine becomes disappointed when he realizes that Faustus cannot provide the intellectual depth or satisfying explanations he is seeking. This meeting further erodes Augustine’s confidence in Manichaeism and accelerates his journey toward Christianity.

Upon moving to Milan, Augustine encounters the influential Bishop Ambrose, a renowned theologian and preacher. Ambrose’s eloquence, intelligence, and deep understanding of the Christian faith greatly impress Augustine. His exposure to Ambrose’s sermons and teachings, as well as his interpretation of the Scriptures, begins to dismantle Augustine’s previous objections to Christianity. Additionally, Ambrose’s personal kindness toward Augustine fosters a relationship that serves as a significant catalyst for Augustine’s conversion.

While in Milan, Augustine also becomes acquainted with Neoplatonism, a school of philosophy that synthesizes elements of Plato’s thought with other philosophical and religious traditions. Neoplatonism helps Augustine gain a new perspective on the nature of evil, which he comes to understand as the absence of good rather than a positive force in itself. This insight aids in reconciling his previous struggles with the problem of evil in Christian doctrine.

Book 5 of Confessions depicts crucial moments in Augustine’s spiritual journey, as his disillusionment with Manichaeism leads him to engage more deeply with Christian thought. His encounters with Ambrose and Neoplatonism provide him with a new understanding of Christianity, setting the stage for his eventual conversion in Book 8.

Book V Synopsis

He stirs his own Soul to praise God
God’s presence can no man avoid, seeing he is everywhere
Of Faustus the Manichee: and of Astrologies
Only the Knowledge of God makes happy
The rashness of Faustus, in teaching what he knew not
Faustus was eloquent by Nature, rather than by Art
He falls off from the Manichees
He takes a Voyage to Rome, against the will of his Mother
Of a shrewd Fever that he fell into
His Errors before his receiving the Doctrine of the Gospel
How he compared the Manichees’ Tenets with the Catholics
The cunning Tricks put at Rome by Scholars upon their Masters
He goes to Milan to teach Rhetoric, and how St. Ambrose there entertains him
Upon his hearing of St. Ambrose, he by little and little falls off from his errors

BOOK VI – Milan

In Book 6 of Confessions Augustine further explores his time in Milan, focusing on the development of his relationships and the spiritual progress he made while grappling with his attachment to earthly desires.

During this period, Augustine’s mother, Monica, joins him in Milan. Monica is a devout Christian who has long prayed for her son’s conversion. She seeks advice from Bishop Ambrose, who assures her that Augustine will eventually find his way to Christianity. Her faith and prayers play a significant role in Augustine’s spiritual journey.

Augustine also forms friendships with fellow seekers of truth, who engage in discussions about philosophy, religion, and the nature of happiness. These friendships provide intellectual stimulation and foster a sense of community that helps him in his quest for understanding.

Despite his growing attraction to Christianity, Augustine continues to struggle with his desires, particularly lust and ambition. He is involved in a long-term relationship with a woman who has borne him a son, Adeodatus, but he is hesitant to commit to a life of celibacy, which he believes is necessary for genuine conversion.

Augustine’s attachment to material success and worldly ambitions also hinders his full acceptance of Christianity. He finds it difficult to reconcile his desire for professional achievement with the humility and self-denial that he perceives as essential to the Christian life.

In summary, Book 6 of Confessions portrays Augustine’s increasing engagement with Christian thought and the obstacles he faces as he moves closer to conversion. His struggles with lust, ambition, and his attachment to worldly success serve as the backdrop for the deepening of his relationships and his ongoing search for spiritual truth.

Book VI Synopsis

How St. Augustine was neither Manichee, nor good Catholic
His Mother is turned from her country Superstitions
The Employments and Studies of St. Ambrose
Of the Letter and the Spirit
Of the Authority and necessary Use of the Holy Bible
The Misery of the ambitious, shewn by the example of a Beggar
He dissuades Alypius from his excessive delight in the Circensian Games
Alypius is taken with a delight of the Sword-plays, which before he hated
Alypius was apprehended for suspicion of thievery
Of the great Integrity of Alypius, and of Nebridius’ coming
He deliberates what course of life he were best to take
A Contention between Alypius and Augustine, about Marriage and Single Life
Augustine lays out for a Wife
A new Plot is laid and broken
How his old Concubine goes away from him, and he gets another
Of the Immortality of the Soul

BOOK VII – Neoplatonism

In Book 7 of Confessions, Augustine recounts a crucial period in his intellectual and spiritual journey, as he delves deeper into Neoplatonism and comes closer to embracing Christianity. This book details the intellectual breakthroughs that bring him to the threshold of conversion, while also exploring his internal struggles and the obstacles he still needs to overcome.

Augustine’s engagement with Neoplatonism provides him with new philosophical perspectives that help clarify his understanding of the nature of God, evil, and the soul. Through Neoplatonism, he comes to see evil as a privation of good rather than an independent force, which helps resolve his long-standing struggles with the problem of evil. He also gains a deeper understanding of the immaterial nature of God and the human soul, allowing him to better appreciate the spiritual aspects of Christianity.

Simultaneously, Augustine becomes more familiar with the Bible, particularly the writings of Saint Paul, which resonate with his personal experiences and spiritual struggles. He finds solace in the message of divine grace, realizing that human beings are incapable of achieving salvation through their own efforts and need God’s assistance to overcome sin.

Despite these intellectual breakthroughs, Augustine still faces significant obstacles on his path to conversion. He continues to struggle with his desires, particularly lust, and finds it difficult to abandon his old habits and fully commit to a Christian lifestyle. He acknowledges his own internal conflict, expressing a longing for spiritual transformation, yet hesitating due to his attachment to worldly pleasures.

Book 7 of Confessions represents a pivotal stage in Augustine’s spiritual journey. As he grapples with Neoplatonic philosophy and deepens his understanding of Christian teachings, he is brought to the brink of conversion. However, his internal struggles and the lingering attachment to earthly desires still need to be overcome before he can fully embrace the Christian faith.

Book VII Synopsis

How rejecting corporeal Images, he began to know God to be incorporeal
Nebridius confutes the Manichees
Free Will is the cause of Sin
God cannot be compelled
He pursues his enquiries after the root of sin
Divinations made by the Mathematicians are vain
He is miserably tortured in his Enquiry after the Root of Evil
How the Mercy of God at length relieved him
What he found in some Books of the Platonists, agreeable to the Christian Doctrine
Divine things are more clearly discovered unto him
How Creatures are, and yet are not
All that is, is Good
All created Things praise God
To a sober Mind, none of God’s Creatures are displeasing
How there is truth and falsehood in the Creatures
All Things are good, though to some Things not fit
What things hinder us of God’s Knowledge
Only Christ is the Way to Salvation
What he thought of Christ’s Incarnation
Of divers Books of the Platonists
What he found in the Holy Scriptures, which was not in the Platonists

BOOK VIII – Conversion to Christianity

In Book 8 of Confessions, Augustine reaches the climactic point of his spiritual journey – his long-awaited conversion to Christianity. The book focuses on his internal struggle to overcome his remaining barriers to faith, as well as the crucial events and encounters that ultimately lead to his surrender to God’s grace.

Augustine continues to wrestle with his attachment to worldly desires, particularly lust, which prevents him from wholeheartedly embracing the Christian faith. Although he has intellectually accepted the truth of Christianity, his will remains divided, unable to break free from his past habits and fully commit to a new life.

Several key events and encounters in this book play a significant role in Augustine’s ultimate conversion:

The story of Victorinus, a prominent Roman rhetorician and philosopher who converted to Christianity late in life, serves as an inspiration for Augustine, demonstrating that it is possible to leave behind a life of worldly success for the sake of faith.
Augustine meets Simplicianus, a wise and experienced Christian who shares the story of the conversion of St. Ambrose’s mentor, the Neoplatonist philosopher Marius Victorinus. This story further emphasizes the transformative power of Christianity and its ability to transcend philosophical differences.
Augustine hears the account of the conversion of two officials in the imperial court, Ponticianus and his friends, who were deeply moved by the life of St. Antony, a renowned Egyptian hermit. Their transformation after reading the story of Antony challenges Augustine to reexamine his own priorities and confront the barriers that prevent him from embracing Christianity.

The culminating event in Augustine’s conversion occurs in a garden, where he hears the voice of a child singing, “Take up and read.” Interpreting this as a divine command, Augustine picks up a nearby copy of the Bible and reads a passage from St. Paul’s Letter to the Romans (13:13-14), which urges him to cast off his old ways and embrace the teachings of Christ. This powerful, transformative moment marks the beginning of Augustine’s new life as a Christian.

Book 8 of Confessions, captures the final stages of Augustine’s journey to Christianity, detailing the internal struggles, external influences, and divine interventions that culminate in his conversion. With this pivotal transformation, Augustine begins a new chapter in his life, dedicated to the pursuit of truth, wisdom, and holiness through the Christian faith.

Book VIII Synopsis

How being inflamed with the Love of Heavenly Things, he goes to Simplicianus
How Victorinus, the famous Orator, was converted
That God and his Angels do rejoice the more, at the conversion of a greater Sinner
Why we are more to rejoice in the Conversion of a great Sinner
What hindered his Conversion
Ponticianus relates the Life of St. Anthony
He was out of Love with himself upon this Story
What he did in the Garden
Why the Mind is so slow to Goodness
The Will of Man is various
The Combat in him betwixt the Spirit and the Flesh
How he was converted by a voice

BOOK IX – Baptism and Death of Augustine’s Mother

Book 9 of Confessions, marks the beginning of Augustine’s new life as a Christian, focusing on the immediate aftermath of his conversion, his baptism, and the death of his mother, Monica. This book explores themes of spiritual transformation, the power of grace, and the importance of community in his journey of faith.

Following his conversion in Book 8, Augustine decides to resign from his position as a teacher of rhetoric and dedicate his life to serving God. Together with his close friends and his son, Adeodatus, he forms a small Christian community where they devote themselves to prayer, study, and contemplation. This period of retreat allows Augustine to further deepen his understanding of Christianity and prepare for his upcoming baptism.

In Milan, Augustine, Adeodatus, and his close friend Alypius are baptized by Bishop Ambrose during the Easter Vigil. This significant event symbolizes the beginning of their new lives as Christians and their commitment to living according to the teachings of Christ.

One of the central events in Book 9 is the death of Augustine’s mother, Monica, which takes place shortly after his baptism. Augustine reflects on her life, faith, and the profound influence she had on his spiritual journey. He recounts a moving conversation they shared shortly before her death, in which they discussed the nature of eternal life and the joys of heaven. Monica’s passing prompts Augustine to contemplate the transient nature of earthly existence and the promise of eternal life in the presence of God.

In summary, Book 9 of Confessions, narrates the transformative experiences following Augustine’s conversion, including his retreat, baptism, and the death of his mother. This book emphasizes the importance of spiritual growth, the power of divine grace, and the role of supportive relationships in helping individuals navigate the challenges and joys of the Christian faith.

Book IX Synopsis

He praiseth God’s Goodness; and acknowledgeth his own wretchedness
He gives over his Teaching of Rhetoric
Verecundus lends them his Country House
What things he wrote with Nebridius
Ambrose directs him what Books to read
He is Baptized at Milan
A Persecution in the Church miraculously diverted
The Conversion of Euodius. A Discourse of his Mother
His Mother Monica’s carriage towards her Husband. A description of a rare Wife
Of a Conference he had with his Mother about the Kingdom of Heaven
Of the Extasy and Death of his Mother
He laments his Mother’s Death
He prayed for his dead Mother

BOOK X- Theology of Memory, Nature of Prayer, Self Examination

In Book 10 of Confessions, Augustine shifts from recounting his personal narrative to offering a profound meditation on memory, self-examination, and the nature of prayer. He examines his current relationship with God and reflects on the human condition, exploring the various dimensions of human desire and the longing for divine union.

Augustine delves into the concept of memory, marveling at its vastness and complexity. He acknowledges the crucial role of memory in shaping his understanding of God, as well as its function in retaining knowledge and experiences. Augustine sees memory as a repository of his past sins and errors, but also as a space where he can encounter God’s grace and presence.

As he engages in self-examination, Augustine reflects on the nature of temptation and the ongoing struggle against sin, even after his conversion. He acknowledges that while he has made progress in his spiritual life, he still faces the challenge of resisting various forms of desire and attachment, such as the temptations of the senses, pride, and the allure of worldly success. He emphasizes the necessity of God’s grace in overcoming these temptations and maintaining the pursuit of holiness.

Throughout Book 10, Augustine offers a series of prayers and reflections on his relationship with God. He seeks divine guidance and assistance in his quest for spiritual growth, acknowledging his reliance on God’s grace to transform his desires and align them with the divine will. Augustine also meditates on the ultimate goal of human existence, which he sees as a longing for union with God, a state of perfect happiness and eternal fulfillment.

In summary, Book 10 of Confessions represents a departure from the autobiographical narrative of the earlier books, focusing instead on a profound exploration of memory, self-examination, and prayer. Through these meditations, Augustine deepens his understanding of his relationship with God and the ongoing challenges he faces in his spiritual journey, revealing the complexity and dynamism of the human desire for divine union.

Book X Synopsis

The Confessions of the Heart
Secret Things are known unto God
The Confession of our ill deeds, what it helps us
Of the great Fruit of Confession
That Man knoweth not himself thoroughly: and knows not God but in a glass darkly
What God is, and how known
God is not to be found by any Ability in our Bodies
The Force of the Memory
The Memory of divers Sciences
Our Senses convey things into our Memory
The Forms of things are in the Soul
The Memory of Mathematicians
The Memory of Memory
How, when we are not glad, we call to mind things that have made us glad
We remember absent Things also
There is a Memory of Forgetfulness also
A threefold Power of Memory
Of the Remembrance
What Remembrance is
All Men desire Blessedness
We also remember what we never had
True Joy, is this blessed Life
A blessed life; what, and where it is
That the Memory containeth God too
In what degree of the Memory God is found
Whereabouts God is to be found
How God draws us to himself
The Misery of this Life
Our Hope is all in God
The deceitfulness of Dreams
The Temptation of Eating and Drinking
Of our Delight in Smelling
The Pleasures taken in Hearing
The Enticements coming in by the Eyes
Of our Curiosity in knowing
The Sin of Pride
Praise and Dispraise, how they move us
Virtue is endangered by Vain-glory
Of Self-love
His Striving against Sin
God and a Lie cannot stand together
Angels cannot be our Mediators
Christ only is the all-sufficient Intercessor

BOOK XI – Theological Inquiry on Time and Creation

In Book 11 of Confessions, Augustine transitions from an introspective examination of his own life to a broader inquiry into philosophical and theological questions. Focusing primarily on the nature of time and creation, Augustine reflects on the opening verses of the Book of Genesis and offers insights into God’s relationship with the temporal world.

Augustine begins by considering the nature of time, asking what it is and how it can be understood. He acknowledges the complexity and elusiveness of time, examining its properties and the difficulty humans have in grasping its true essence. He distinguishes between past, present, and future, asserting that only the present truly exists, while the past and future are mental constructs.

Turning to the subject of creation, Augustine contemplates the nature of God’s creative act as described in the Book of Genesis. He rejects the idea that God created the world in a temporal sense, as he believes that God exists outside of time, being eternal and unchanging. Instead, Augustine proposes that creation occurred simultaneously with time, both having their origin in God’s creative act.

Throughout his reflections on time and creation, Augustine emphasizes the limitations of human understanding when it comes to comprehending divine realities. He acknowledges that human language and concepts are insufficient to fully grasp the nature of God and the mysteries of creation.

Book 11 of Confessions, marks a significant shift in focus, as Augustine moves from a personal exploration of his own experiences to a broader philosophical and theological inquiry. By contemplating the nature of time and creation, Augustine deepens his understanding of God’s relationship with the temporal world and underscores the limitations of human knowledge in the face of divine mysteries.

Book XI Synopsis

Why we confess unto God who knows all
He sueth to be delivered from his Sins and Errors, and to be guided unto the true Knowledge
He desires to understand the Holy Scriptures
The Creatures proclaim God to be their Creator
How the World was made of Nothing
He disputes curiously what manner of Word the World was created by
The Son of God is the Word co-eternal with the Father
The Word of God is our Teacher in all
How the Word of God speaketh unto the Heart
God’s Will knows no Beginning
God’s Eternity not to be measured by the parts of Time
What God did before the Creation of the World
That before those Times which God created, there was no Time
Of the Nature and three Differences of Time
No Time can be said to be long
Of our measuring of Times
Where Time past, and to come, now are
How Times past, and to come, are now present
He demands of God, how future Things be foreknown
These three differences of Times, how they are to be called
How Time may be measured
He begs of God the Resolution of a Difficulty
He clears this Question, what Time is
Time it is, by which we measure the Motion of Bodies
He prayed again
The Measuring of the Feet and Syllables of a Verse
He begins to resolve the former question, how we measure time
We measure Times in our Mind
How the Mind lengthens out itself
He goes on in the same Discourse
How God is known, and how the creature

BOOK XII – Theology of Creation, Scripture, and Tradition

In Book 12 of Confessions, Augustine continues his in-depth exploration of the Book of Genesis, focusing on the interpretation of Scripture and the theological implications of creation. He emphasizes the importance of humility and charity in approaching the study of Scripture and delves into various perspectives on the creation narrative.

Augustine acknowledges that Scripture can be interpreted in multiple ways, stressing the importance of embracing an attitude of humility and openness when engaging with the text. He suggests that different interpretations can be valid, as long as they do not contradict essential Christian teachings and are guided by the principles of charity and love.

To illustrate the range of interpretations, Augustine examines various understandings of the creation story in Genesis, particularly the phrase “In the beginning, God created the heavens and the earth” (Genesis 1:1). He engages with multiple perspectives, including those that interpret creation as occurring in a literal sequence of days, as well as those that view it allegorically or symbolically.

Through his analysis of creation, Augustine emphasizes the distinction between God’s eternal, unchanging nature and the mutable nature of the created world. He asserts that all things find their origin in God, who transcends time and created everything from nothing (creatio ex nihilo). Augustine also explores the nature of God’s Word (the Logos) and its role in the creation process, recognizing that the Word is the means through which all things were made.

Book 12 of Confessions extends Augustine’s theological inquiry into the interpretation of Scripture and the nature of creation. His emphasis on humility, charity, and intellectual openness when approaching the Bible, as well as his exploration of various interpretations of the Genesis narrative, demonstrate the depth and complexity of Augustine’s thought and the richness of the Christian intellectual tradition.

Book XII Synopsis

’Tis very difficult to find out the Truth
That the Heaven we see is but Earth, in respect of the Heaven of Heavens, which we see not
Of the Darkness upon the Face of the Deep
Of the Chaos, and what Moses called it
That this Chaos is hard to conceive
What himself sometimes thought of it
Heaven is greater than Earth
The Chaos was created out of nothing, and out of that, all things
What that Heaven of Heavens is
His Desire to understand the Scriptures
What he learned of God
Of two Creatures not within Compass of Time
The Nature of the Heaven of Heavens described
The Depth of Holy Scripture
The Difference betwixt the Creator and the creatures. Some Discourses about the Heaven of Heavens
Against such as contradict divine Truth: and of his own Delight in it
What the Names of Heaven and Earth signify
Divers Expositors may understand one Text several Ways
Of some particular apparent Truths
He interprets Genesis 1:1 otherwise
These Words, the Earth was void &c., diversely understood
That the waters are also contained under the names of Heaven and Earth
In interpreting of Holy Scripture, Truth is to be sought with a charitable Construction
The Scripture is true, though we understand not the uttermost Scope or Depth of it
We are not to break Charity about a different Exposition of Scripture
What Style was fit to write the Scriptures in
The best Drawing at the fountain
How diversely this Scripture is understood by others
How many Ways a Thing may be said to be First
The Scriptures are to be searched, with honorable Respect unto the Penman
Truth is so to be received; whoever speaks it
He prays to obtain right Meaning

BOOK XIII – Theology of Creation, Trinity, and Spiritual Formation

In Book 13, the final book of Confessions, Augustine continues his reflections on the Book of Genesis, focusing on the creation narrative, the nature of the Holy Trinity, and the process of spiritual renewal. Augustine also meditates on the role of Scripture and the Church in guiding individuals on their path to God.

Augustine explores the meaning behind the seven days of creation, offering both literal and allegorical interpretations. He sees the days as representing various stages in the spiritual development of human beings as they progress toward union with God. In his analysis, Augustine emphasizes the role of divine grace in transforming the human soul and enabling spiritual growth.

Throughout his reflections on Genesis, Augustine consistently refers to the doctrine of the Holy Trinity, contemplating the roles of the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit in creation and the process of redemption. He sees the Trinity as the source of all being, goodness, and truth, and highlights its importance in understanding the nature of God and the dynamics of the Christian faith.

Augustine also meditates on the Church as the body of Christ, emphasizing the importance of community and the role of the Church in nurturing spiritual growth. He views the Church as a vehicle through which individuals can receive divine grace, participate in the sacraments, and grow closer to God.

In the concluding passages of Confessions, Augustine offers a prayer of gratitude and praise to God, acknowledging the transformative power of divine grace in his own life and the lives of others. He reaffirms his commitment to a life of faith, seeking to deepen his relationship with God and share the insights he has gained throughout his spiritual journey. In summary, Book 13 of “Confessions” brings Augustine’s work to a close by reflecting on the creation narrative, the Holy Trinity, and the process of spiritual renewal. His emphasis on the importance of Scripture, the Church, and the role of divine grace in guiding individuals toward union with God provides a fitting conclusion to this deeply personal and profoundly theological work.

Book XIII Synopsis

He called upon God
Of the Creatures’ dependency upon their Creator
All is of the Grace of God
God needs not the Creatures, but they Him
His Confession of the Blessed Trinity
Of the Spirit’s moving upon the Waters
Of the Effect or Working of the Holy Spirit
How God’s Spirit cherishes feeble Souls
Why the Spirit only moved upon the Waters
All is of God’s Gift
Of some Impressions or Resemblances of the Blessed Trinity, that be in man
The Water in Baptism is effectual by the Holy Spirit
His devout longing after God
Our Misery is comforted by Faith and Hope
By the word Firmament, is the Scripture meant
God is unchangeable

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Errata to Wormwood

By James Austin in Monographs

This post is a book review of C.S. Lewis’s The Screwtape Letters. To track and understand what Lewis wrote from the perspective of Screwtape in his correspondence to Wormwood, I wrote these summaries in the way that Lewis cast Screwtape. Yet, in the same tone, meaning, voice, and manner to get a slight glimpse of what he had to say. Letter after letter, these are summaries as a review method to understand how they work together and what they intend to do to the reader. This is a role play by prose to get a sense of disgust and alarm that we are meant to understand. The consistent thread among all Screwtape’s letters to Wormwood constitutes areas of attack on the whole person. Whether toward virtue, interests, or values, every area of a person’s life is subject to constant animosity and relentless degradation until final and total separation from God.

SUMMARY OF CORRESPONDENCE

Concerning efforts to secure the damnation of a young man, these are letters from uncle Screwtape to Wormwood outlined for summary understanding. Together, they represent the courses of action between an old devil Screwtape and his young demonic protégé, Wormwood. Following C.S. Lewis’s rationale (and satire) concerning the alarming methods and intentions of adversarial efforts of spiritual enemies, we learn what we’re up against from among Screwtape’s letters.

MACHINATIONS

Erratum 1:

Keep him from science and the ability or interest of proper season. He must remain preoccupied with the ordinary. Your job is to keep him focused on “real life.”

Erratum 2:

On the displeasing news that he becomes a Christian, keep him entangled in improper habits and values as long as possible to impede his spiritual growth. While continuing to think he is doing his church a favor by attending services, his mind must remain occupied with comparisons between what is observed among church congregants and how he thinks church members should be.

Erratum 3:

It is of utmost importance that the relationship between the young man and his mother is a constant series of annoyances. The domestic life of family must be aggravating even in the slightest way possible, but with pin-prick persistence in tone, mannerisms, and words chosen during conversation that does subtle yet cumulative harm. Develop circumstances in which offense and grievance are paramount among family members at the slightest interaction. Pay more attention to the young man’s concern about the spiritual condition of the mother as he is focused on the condition of the soul and sins of the past. If the young man should begin to guide his mother in prayer, or spiritual development, make sure that the effort is fruitless. If he is to pray for his mother, his prayers are to be on the grounds of uniformed and reckless concern.

Erratum 4:

It’s best to keep the young man, the patient, from praying. However, if prayer is to occur, it must be kept inward, informal, and unregularized. Any cognitive effort during prayer shall not be present within the patient, but a vague sense of devotion shall be the main course of prayer. It is unacceptable for the patient to pray out loud or on his knees. Prayer is to be superficial as it is among those very far advanced in the Enemy’s service. As this effort continues, keep the patient focused on their own minds and direct their gaze elsewhere from any service to the Enemy. Try to stimulate feelings within the patient to misdirect his intention. Look into the patient’s mind to find as much dirt as possible while he is praying and focused on God. Finally, keep the patient praying to the object through which his imagination is anchored.

Erratum 5:

The anguish of a human soul is nothing to be exuberant about. Don’t let it go to your head. If you trap the human soul and eternally secure his fate forever, the patient will belong to you while he is in despair, horror, and astonishment. To undermine faith and the development of virtues, it is necessary to render a complete account of the patient’s reactions to the war in Europe about to get underway. Do your best to make the patient an extreme patriot or ardent pacifist, as humans undergo extreme suffering in service of your father below.

Erratum 6:

It is desirable to have the patient in a continuous or periodic state of anxiety and uncertainty. Blocking a human’s mind against the Enemy is of concern as there’s an effort to preoccupy what will happen to him. The Enemy wants the patient to be concerned about what he does and not what he thinks about himself or his state of mind. In the midst of mental suffering, direct the patient’s thoughts and prayers upon himself where he has no interest in directing his attention upon the Enemy or others. Direct the patient’s concentration and mind to the object and circumstances and never upon the Enemy or others.

If the patient does happen to have concern and anguish about the state of society, world affairs, or the war, direct the malice of the patient to those around him. Suppose he should develop compassion or empathy toward people. In that case, they are to be directed to people at a distance among people unknown. Inflamed hatred of immediate surroundings among neighbors begins to transfer to family, friends, fellow students, and the patient’s employer. Distant care and empathy remain imaginary.

Erratum 7:

It is not acceptable to reveal your existence to the patient. The father below does not permit it. If the patient begins to wonder about it, direct his thoughts and passions elsewhere by distraction and suggestive interests. Keep the patient confused and oblivious to the existence of spirits, demons, and devils where no suspicion is permitted to surface. Suggest anything contradictory to the existence of dark influences. Redirect attention to base interest concerning cravings, lusts, and passions. Passivism or patriotism taken to heightened interest can become a source of workable influence on the spiritual demise of the patient. Hatred and pride must be permitted to form and fester where the patient continues to abide by it with people of common interest. Cliques within the church that keep it small with no outreach due to its insular posture against the more immediate community help to shunt access to relief for spiritual, mental, emotional, and physical well-being. So long as the patient is more concerned about his passions rather than his spiritual formation, the sacraments, prayer, scripture, charity, and devotion to the Enemy, he remains in the realm of the father below.

Erratum 8:

Humans are both flesh and spirit, so their interests and imaginations continually change. It is expected that the patient will have seasons of spiritual ups and downs during the course of life. Peaks and valleys of spiritual, emotional, mental, and physical well-being are characteristic of people who are devoted to the Enemy. Intervals of vacant feelings, hopes, and desires will be interspersed with joy, faith, and love. Periods of dry existence are certain. So during these periods, the Enemy will likely use the circumstances for the betterment of the patient. Determine what the Enemy is doing, and make it your efforts to do the opposite. The Enemy relies on hard times to take permanent possession of those He loves. As this is a direct conflict of interest, people to us are cattle who serve as spiritual food. As they are captured and enslaved, they abide by the will of the father below and all his constituents.

It is understood that the Enemy will not override people’s will to assimilate them as He desires them to be one with Him by their choices. By sovereign intent, He will, at times, make His presence known, which will help the patient to overcome temptations with encouragement, peace, and emotional delight in the Enemy. So when the Enemy withdraws from the patient for him to stand on his own, the more temptation you direct toward him, the better. If the Enemy is served and obeyed when the patient is distant or convinced he is forsaken, He is pleased, and that is when significant damage is done to the interests of the father below.

Erratum 9:

During the valleys of spiritual growth, the best areas of temptation are about the sensuality of the patient. When a person’s life is empty and without warmth or the color of life, that is drawn into perversion and disappointing sexuality. Any form of physical defilement is where the temptation for pleasure is focused. Capture the person’s soul through his or her own interests, especially through periods of mental or spiritual dryness. This will lead to doubt about spiritual matters and religion and that it is only helpful to a point. Your efforts at deception would involve terms and accusations that characterize periods of doubt as phases of life. Reason, intellect, and thought were adversaries during this time, whereas platitudes and seeds sown as catchphrases and terminology of popular social interests arose as the paramount concern. Keep the patient’s mind off of notions of true and false with gradations and nuances of meaning.

Erratum 10:

The vanity of the patient is of considerable use. In the areas of social, intellectual, cultural, and sexual interest, the patient can betray who he really is, and by doing so often and long enough, he might become what he pretends to be. The patient’s life among circles of friends who are different from who he really is (his values, capabilities, understanding, station in life) can become an entanglement that is difficult to get free from. Here, it is useful to attack the patient’s virtues or even his wonder about what they are. Then feed this vanity and do not let the patient think of his friends as circles to which he pretends to be someone he is not. With precipitous reinforcement, the patient will, under false pretenses and treachery, come to feel satisfied with the neglect of himself, his mother, and those responsibilities others rely on.

Erratum 11:

Laughter and joy are not useful to the objectives before you. Nor is music with harmony and rhythm. As fun is associated with joy, it is an undesirable artifact of human existence. It promotes virtues that work against the objectives of what you’re set to do. Laughter, fun, and joy turned in on itself with perverse intent is a course of action that is the better way to go.

Erratum 12:

As the patient is pressed to error and spiritual undoing, make him imagine that all his choices are revokable. He is allowed to retain the habits of a Christian externally, but his spiritual state must remain the same without recognizing sin. Do not allow genuine repentance to develop and inhibit the patient’s desire and interest in the Enemy. Waste his time because the gradual and precipitous slide into Hell is more certain with enough care and attention to detail. Be not as concerned about outright grievous sins, but keep him from doing anything. While efforts are directed to distractions from his purpose, you are to seek numbness of the heart with vanity, flippancy, and habits. Separate the patient from the Enemy into nothing.

Erratum 13:

Simple pleasures that positively affect a person’s faith are disastrous to the cause. It is not acceptable to permit the patient to be satisfied in what makes him sufficiently refreshed or restored, whether of the heart, mind, or spirit. The patient is instead to want the best of anything that appeals to the appetite, contrary to what leads to both repentance and active obedience to the Enemy. The patient can undergo a change of mind or a change of heart, but he must not do anything about it.

Erratum 14:

Make the patient proud. Even if incrementally and conceal the end result of humility. Make him value an opinion for some quality other than Truth. Dishonesty and false belief about a counterfeit virtue as something more prized. Run interference to the Enemy and all His intentions. It is imperative to destroy any self-perceived notion of glorious and excellent things where the desire for consistent attention to the Enemy’s interests is well-served. Virtues that enable Godly self-love that positively affects neighbors is the harm done to the cause.

Erratum 15:

Keep the patient worried. Live in the future or the past, but not the present or the eternal. However, it is better to focus on the future to stir and perpetuate worry. The future is the least like eternity. Nearly all vices are rooted in the future. Fear, lust, avarice, and ambition have interrelated temporality. The sin that is conceived and born happens before it is committed. Conversely, if in the present, the patient’s view and confidence about the future is a source of peace and contentment, that is an area to attack.

Erratum 16:

As a recent convert, it is advisable to send the patient to various churches if he should become dissatisfied with his existing fellowship. Even if the patient is faithful to a church for a long while, it is time and effort well spent to stir up division among congregants and the leadership. Even if the patient were to attend other churches nearby, they practice their faith in an abundance of error. The teaching is mainly erroneous and limited, whereby the spiritual development of congregants is stunted no matter where he goes.

Erratum 17:

Press in on a deadened conscience about gluttony as that is to be concentrated on delicacy and not only excess. Gluttony of this sort is a sensuality that leads to other areas of damage to the soul. It also has a devastating effect on social and interpersonal relationships concerning the patient as he must get exactly what he wants no matter how small or the grief it causes others. While it might appear that the patient is practicing temperance, in reality, the opposite happens on another scale. The stomach represents the appetite for sensual pleasure as it translates to incremental want beyond the interests of others.

Erratum 18:

Marrying for any other reason than love, such as procreation, is to culture a cynical view of what it means to become one flesh for a mutually inward purpose: the Enemy demands either monogamy or complete abstinence. There is a sense of entitlement among those who wish to marry that there must be love that brings them together as the exclusive reason to which they could marry. As it is naturally evident, the method of reproduction comes through copulation between a man and a woman. Yet, the union between them is a physical representation of the members of the three as God. As a couple marries and comes together as one flesh, they represent the tri-unity of the Creator. So as couples do not have mutual feelings of affection and love to give cause for marriage, even while they’re a suitable fit for one another to grow in a fruitful and loving relationship, there is a viable opening to keep any such couple separated.

Erratum 19:

The idea that the Enemy loves people is an impossible proposition. Nevertheless, it is worth your time and effort to make the patient believe that love is both intrinsically meritorious and irresistible if your patient is gullible. Determine what type of man is the point of concentration to which your project seals him in final and eternal condemnation. If he is proud, lead him to asceticism, where the body is disconnected from humanized and physical intimacy. These conditions can set the groundwork for adultery, suicide, and worse. At the very least, please do your best to ensure the patient marries someone you identify from the local community who would make it impossible for him to live out his faith.

Erratum 20:

If it’s impossible to persuade the patient that chastity is unhealthy, it then becomes a priority to bring him into a marriage unsuitable to him and his faith. The preference is to perpetuate the common belief that the only way to get rid of temptation is to yield to it, but there are extenuating circumstances here. If the only option is to make the patient fall in love with a woman, two conditions must follow. You must select one of two types of women. An exceedingly arrogant woman or an excessively withdrawn and cowardly female with a heightened form of feminity will do. In either instance, the likelihood of bearing children is reduced to satisfy our mutual interests.

Erratum 21:

You must ensure that the patient, who is devoted to the Enemy, believes that all his days and hours are exclusively his time. Cultivate within the patient a sense of ownership of time and what he believes rightfully belongs to him.

Erratum 22:

[ Letter 22 from Screwtape to Wormwood was a complete meltdown. Upon learning that the patient has come to a loving relationship with a Godly woman full of the Spirit, with virtue, peace, and grace, Screwtape flies off into a tirade with insults directed at everyone around him. The likeness of Christ within her and the echoes of Heaven in their home set him in a verbal rage when suddenly he is transformed into a centipede (which is reportedly a transformation that arrives from the inner self). Screwtape attributes the unexpected yet periodic shape change to an act of God. As his letter to Wormwood is interrupted, Screwtape’s undersecretary “Toadpipe” takes dictation to finish the written message to Wormwood. Toadpipe signed the letter, For his Abysmal Sublimity Undersecretary Screwtape, TE, BS, Etc. ].

Erratum 23:

While it becomes possible and certain that spirituality cannot be removed from the patient, it becomes necessary to corrupt it. To do that, you must inject a “historical Jesus” centered on interest involving liberalism, humanitarian efforts, Marxism, and social justice. This is to direct people’s devotion off of Jesus and onto other pursuits and interests. Jesus must become just a great moral teacher only. To further corrupt spirituality, the devotional life of people must be destroyed. The root of corruption grows into allowing people to form their political, professional, social, and personal lives for advancement and gain. Efforts toward spiritual revival for the betterment of society are an empty course of practice as the Enemy will not stand for being leveraged in this way. So, this is what you must specifically do in an effort to corrupt the spiritual development of the patient and the believers around him. Even if the effort is to develop a smaller piece of a false and counterfeit form of service and devotion, that is time and energy well spent.

Erratum 24:

[As Wormwood is in charge of the young man’s sought-after demise (the patient), another demonic entity has dark spiritual authority over the young woman the patient has grown to love. Screwtape writes further to Wormwood about correspondence with Slumtrimpet, the dark authority in charge of the malevolence against the young woman.]

As it is observed that the patient is introduced to other believers, he is naturally interested in learning more to grow spiritually. The young girl, in her innocence, could be useful in this regard. As she has an ability to recognize what is authentic and counterfeit, or imitation, this can be made to influence the patient into hideous Spiritual Pride. As the patient learns from more spiritually mature believers, he is to be made that his learning is his own. He earned what he has come to understand, and he has come into a stature where he now belongs to ‘his people.’ He then turns from segments of society as they are beneath him or separate, as they are no longer entertaining or of value. Making the patient believe that by his interpersonal circles, formed through his delight in the young woman, he will come to know his fellowship as “his people.” He must begin to feel entitled to people he believes are “his” people as a unique set and the right kind of people. Sinful social vanity is one thing, but Spiritual Pride is another, and you will want to concentrate on the latter.

Erratum 25:

It is also a particular desire to associate Christianity with some other corresponding interest as an attached and interdependent concern of the faith. Christianity and social justice, Christianity and tradition, Christianity and prosperity, Christianity and social well-being, and so forth are circumstances to cultivate within the patient. Work on their horror for the familiar. It is said that familiarity breeds contempt, and so change must be made with some regularity. Not for change as a pleasurable experience but as a continuity of novelty and demand for gratification. The point is to reduce healthy pleasure for ever-increasing desire with a growing outcome toward avarice (extreme greed for wealth or material gain). The nonsense of the intellect can further corrupt the will on the incessant path of modernity. So, get the patient to ask if faithful interests, Christian practices, and devotion are in step with the progressive trajectory of social and civil order. This philosophy or pattern of thought renders people susceptible to distraction where their wills are bent toward what the father below prescribes.

Erratum 26:

Perpetual self-sacrifice in the form of self-righteous generosity can lead to an inability to seek the needs of others through proper outreach, charity, and love. Watch for opportunities to breed hidden resentment or subtle conflict between the patient, his young woman, and related families.

Erratum 27:

Encourage the patient to reject prayers for help about a wandering mind or distractions as he has become more attuned to temporal happiness now that he has a love for a young woman. As concerns spill over into other areas that work against his more immediate happiness, interject thoughts with intellectual difficulties that lead to flawed rationale about his state of mind during prayer. Through this, you aim to persuade him that petitionary prayers are ineffective. As the patient becomes more familiar with the current state of thinking among scholars and spiritual leaders concerning the historical writings of ancient authors, guide him toward those who assert that history, which comports with Truth and the Enemy’s work throughout Creation, is false.

Erratum 28:

You’re to keep the patient alive as long as you can during his course of life. He would not be consigned to Hell if he were to die today because he has surrendered himself to the Enemy. He has remained close to the Enemy and seeks to obey Him at every turn. The longer the patient is alive after he has given himself to the Enemy, the more hope there is to win him to the father below. If he is permitted to live and remain protected while he settles into earthly living, he might become more susceptible to compromise during attacks until his final demise.

Erratum 29:

Muddle the patient’s virtues. Evaluate the best target for the most favorable outcomes against the patient. Some existing virtue is necessary to develop and magnify a man’s wickedness. Using people with virtues to betray one’s own is a deception and a trade worth making. It is necessary to recognize virtue and what it is or does in order to see it in others and betray it. Even if temporarily by confusion.

Erratum 30:

The continued erosion of virtue while the patient is tired, exhausted, or afraid is of significant interest. Because when he is attacked under these conditions, what is spiritually real can become questionable. Where doubt sets in, different choices can be made with devastating consequences. Blinding people to the existence of virtues or their absence can render individuals aware or oblivious to lapses in moral values and behaviors. With increased fear, there is the potential for anger and anxiety.

Erratum 31:

[ Screwtape is displeased with Wormwood as the patient had escaped their grasp just as he passed away. The patient’s soul has slipped through their temptations despite their machinations. Screwtape is extraordinarily angered by Wormwood getting outmaneuvered. And Screwtape lamented what was revealed to the patient upon death. The patient’s explicit knowledge of sin and what Wormwood and his associates had done faded into shadow as salvation was finally attained. All the temptations and attacks of Wormwood were futile in the end. The patient would encounter pain, suffering, and trial no more. As Screwtape was assured and obnoxious about Wormwood’s failures at tempting the patient to drag him to Hell, he sank into further misery and angst about the rejection of their work.

As Screwtape signed off on each letter, he wrote, “Your affectionate Uncle SCREWTAPE,” but this time, he made sure that Wormwood would have to settle with him about the loss. Screwtape’s final signoff was especially ominous. ]

SCREWTAPE PROPOSES A TOAST

These were diabolical letters. An exercise in twisting the mind. A projection into a dark view of humanity and its depravity. The use of diabolical ventriloquism was a view of what spiritual temptation looks like with provocateurs of evil origin. As the errata closed, the author returned later with the Screwtape figure as an honored guest in Hell who proposed a toast to his contemporaries within an esteemed academic institution. His gesture of celebration and appeal to mutual congratulation for the work of seasoned professionals and newcomers was a scene of vile contempt with reason and wicked persuasion. Screwtape drew attention at his college address to the individuals, cliques, modern society, and evil systems of government who were quite capable of putting themselves squarely in Hell without any aid of devils, demons, or other evil influences. All those in attendance in Hell were given a discourse on precisely how lost, socially misled, and self-corrupted people are perfectly capable of doing the work of Hell’s appointed occupants.

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The Mortification of Sin

By James Austin in Monographs

For quite a long time, I’ve had an abridged version of John Owen’s The Mortification of Sin published by Banner of Truth. It’s about 130 pages long and spans 14 short chapters, just like the unabridged version. However, it was written in significantly different prose to retain the thoughts throughout the book’s structure and format. As it was so different and written in an “easy to read” style (as indicated by its cover), the editor (Richard Rushing) updated John Owen’s old English to modern terms and phrases. The text changes went far beyond that compared to Owen’s written work. So, I turned my attention to the unabridged version and went through that until completion. The written copy I have is from The Works of John Owen, Volume 6 of 16, part 1 (“The Mortification of Sin in Believers”).¹ John Owen wrote this treatise on killing sin many years before this publication date of 1862, but the subject matter was carried forward differently and directly for a more thorough understanding.

While this book section, The Mortification of Sin in Believers, is short, it is highly dense in meaning and urgency. This first pass was an effort to clear through the book (section 1 of volume 6) without analyzing or dwelling on anything. The overall effort was to convey the message and meaning through a read-through of a Puritan’s perspective on what the Apostle Paul wrote to the churches in Rome and Colossae. Specifically, the 17th-century Puritan was deeply concerned about sin in the lives of believers, and he wrote a widely read examination of what it means to put sin to death. While the mortification of sin was John Owen’s pressing concern, he offered encouragement, exhortation, clarity, and guidance on what sin is and what it does. He had specific thoughts about what it is to eradicate its root by the Spirit and the involvement of the believer’s intentional will.

“For if ye live after the flesh, ye shall die: but if ye through the Spirit do mortify the deeds of the body, ye shall live.” – Romans 8:13 KJV.

“Mortify therefore your members which are upon the earth; fornication, uncleanness, inordinate affection, evil concupiscence, and covetousness, which is idolatry: For which things’ sake the wrath of God cometh on the children of disobedience.” – Colossians 3:5-6 KJV.

This is not a book that can be read once and passed through without much contemplation or self-reflection. Sin is so grave that it eternally damns people, according to scripture. Owen, just as Paul did, wrote of “mortifying” it. As mortification is an old English translation, it corresponds to “putting to death” in modern translations (ESV, NIV, NKJV, HCSB, and more). The term “mortify” is translated identically in both references in Romans 8:13 and Colossians 3:5, even though their Greek roots are different.

Furthermore, mortification, or mortify, is understood from multiple perspectives, all of which are consistent in meaning. “The act of self-denial or the ‘putting to death’ of sinful instincts or cravings to have freedom from sin and to live in the power of the Holy Spirit. The NT stresses that this act of humiliation comes about through the grace of God. It is the result of, not the condition for, conversion.” The key passages Paul wrote correspond to numerous principles Owen stressed, and together they support the Reformed tradition.

Mortification:
The process of “putting to death” one’s sinful nature as the old self, which continually struggles because of the reality of indwelling sin. This process takes place in the lives of believers who, while they have been set free from sin’s dominion by the indwelling Holy Spirit who unites them to Christ, are called to live in light of God’s grace as they actively work out their salvation. …. if it is truly part of sanctification, it must be accomplished through the Spirit of Christ in dynamic interplay with a believer’s response of repentance; mere human effort does not result in increased freedom from sin, even if it changes outward behavior.²

To Owen’s point in his book, while a person can successfully overcome sinful behaviors, that doesn’t necessarily mean that the instincts and cravings have been put to death. Compared to Reformed theology, Catholicism also emphasizes Galatians 5:24, where it is necessary to “crucify the flesh.”³ As some English translations render “consider as dead” (NASB, LSB) in a passive sense, many other translations (including various Catholic translations) are active with the “put to death” language. For example, the “Little Rock Catholic Study Bible,” “New American Bible: Revised Edition” (NABRE), “The Revised Standard Version, Catholic Edition” (RSVCE), “Douay-Rheims Bible” as mortify (D-R), and the “Ignatius Bible: Revised Standard Version, Second Catholic Edition” (RSV2CE) all express the same meaning. When delving further into the definition of the terms nekroō (νεκρόω) in Colossians 3:5 and thanatoō (θανατόω) in Romans 8:13, they both correlate to the “put to death” sense of meaning. The Louw-Nida Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament treats both terms as figurative, with suggestive meanings, where intended readers understood the original root manuscripts as conventional figures of speech to convey the same idea.⁴

Owen is clear in his book that mortification is not a passive posture of sin in the flesh, nor is it mere recognition or consideration from a believer. He stresses that it is an active, conscious effort on the part of someone who has become a believer by faith and repentance. However, he also recognizes that the process of mortification is lifelong, and it depends solely upon the Spirit of Christ to definitively accomplish the continued crucifixion of sin in the life of a believer. The believer is participative by necessity, but is not the practical and final means of mortification. The Spirit of Christ is who does the work. As sin was put to death in the sacrifice and resurrection of Christ Jesus, the law of death is applied to sin itself in the lives of believers. Where the Spirit lives within believers, there is the law of life by the Spirit as long as there is no yield to sin. That sin is persistently, iteratively, and ruthlessly killed actively against particular offenses. Mortification is “the slaying of the disease of the soul, and by slaying this disease, it restores and invigorates the soul’s true life.”⁵

To further give careful thought about directions, general rules, assertions, means, and the heart, it is of salvific concern to camp on Owen’s written views as supported by scripture. He doesn’t attempt to assign weight to tradition or works of the law. Still, that mortification of the flesh is an intentional effort of faith, necessary to sanctify believers who work out their salvation with fear and trembling (Phil 2:12-13). As it is impossible to earn salvation through works or efforts that yield positive outcomes and the removal of sins, if efforts of mortification are not by faith, they are of no spiritual value. Owen asserts that such progress involves replacing sins with others in the absence of the necessary faith, through the heart of a believer, concerning the treacherous and destructive nature of sin. Under the authority of God’s Word as written by the Holy Spirit through the Apostle Paul, those who live by the flesh will die. In contrast, those who live by the Spirit shall live. To be more explicit, regarding the term “flesh” (Rom 8:13 KJV), John Chrysostom (347 – 407 A.D., Archbishop of Constantinople) refers to it as follows: “what Paul means by the flesh in this passage is not the essence of the body but a life which is carnal and worldly, serving self-indulgence and extravagance to the full.” ⁶

Owen’s readers might also remember Jesus’s parable of the rich man and Lazarus (Luke 16:19-31). And specifically, verse 25: “But Abraham said, ‘Child, remember that you in your lifetime received your good things, and Lazarus in like manner bad things; but now he is comforted here, and you are in anguish (see Luke 6:24; Job 21:13; Ps. 17:14). The comparative man who fared “sumptuously” (Luke 16:19) was condemned. Where the rich man in the parable was delighted, glad, and enjoying himself in celebration and rejoicing by dining and merriment, there was apparent opulence that highlighted the disparity between him and Lazarus.

While this is a short book review on the unabridged version of The Mortification of Sin, it is about the abridged version from Banner of Truth Trust and the more comprehensive version in volume 6 from T&T Clark as part of the sixteen-volume set published in 1862 (MDCCCLXII). The first pass through the book is insufficient for a reader to grasp the necessary points of study and understand the subject matter. A surface reading to get a topical understanding of what Owen wrote doesn’t support the best in terms of retention and application. To more fully grasp what Owen wrote here concerning the killing of sin is a weighty subject. Whether a reader’s immersion in the text is through the abridged or unabridged version, this is a book to iterate upon. My first time through this book thoroughly informed me about why John Owen is so widely read and studied. Nevertheless, his pressing concern about the lifelong urgency of killing sin within is not a daily call to repentance but a persistent and ruthless inward campaign to find and destroy anything innate that raises itself against God and the Spirit of Christ.

Citations

___________________________________________
¹ John Owen, The Works of John Owen, ed. William H. Goold, vol. 6 (Edinburgh: T&T Clark, n.d., 1862).
² Kelly M. Kapic and Wesley Vander Lugt, Pocket Dictionary of the Reformed Tradition, The IVP Pocket Reference Series (Downers Grove, IL: IVP Academic, 2013), 76.
³ Charles G. Herbermann, Edward A. Pace, et al., eds., “Mortification,” The Catholic Encyclopedia: An International Work of Reference on the Constitution, Doctrine, Discipline, and History of the Catholic Church (New York: The Encyclopedia Press; The Universal Knowledge Foundation, 1907–1913).
⁴ Johannes P. Louw and Eugene Albert Nida, Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament: Based on Semantic Domains (New York: United Bible Societies, 1996), 660.
⁵ Ibid. Herbermann.
⁶ John Chrysostom, “Homilies of St. John Chrysostom, Archbishop of Constantinople, on the Epistle of St. Paul to the Romans,” in Saint Chrysostom: Homilies on the Acts of the Apostles and the Epistle to the Romans, ed. Philip Schaff, trans. J. B. Morris, W. H. Simcox, and George B. Stevens, vol. 11, A Select Library of the Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church, First Series (New York: Christian Literature Company, 1889), 434–435.

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The Hallways of Silence

By James Austin in Monographs

In recent months, I’ve had a growing interest in prayer, and I’ve been gathering subject matter about the reasons for it and how its continued use is critical within the believer’s life of faith and practice. Prayer is how people communicate with God, and there are many biblical examples within the Old and New Testaments concerning what that means and involves. Jesus spoke of prayer to teach His followers how to pray properly in spirit, sincerity, and truth according to individual and group needs according to God’s will and interests (Matt 6:5-15). With some further interest, I’ve brought together additional relevant titles that shall be read to understand prayer at a greater depth, but this written work is from R.A. Torrey’s short book, How to Pray.

Background

From a Protestant perspective, they are from Reformed and Wesleyan traditions to get a narrowly diverse view about what prayer is, how it functions, and its purposes by examples from within Scripture. Catholic & Orthodox perspectives are considered for further understanding and review in forthcoming separate reviews. These titles are read and closely tracked with notes to clarify what prayer is from various traditions and confessional commitments. The book, How to Pray is a public-domain classic historically read widely among evangelicals. The author has written numerous books and comes from a faith tradition relevant to early perspectives from 20^th-century Western Christianity to today. The book review and summary presented here are from the unabridged text within the Moody Classics series from Moody Publishers (ISBN-13 978-0-8024-5652-6).

R.A. Torrey’s “Little Book on Prayer” is 121 pages in a 5” x 7” format, and it covers vital concerns about life in “conversation” with God. While his writing comes from the worldview of Torrey as an early 20^th-century Protestant minister, it is clear that the terms and principles come from language inherent in Western civilization at the time. The book has a wild-west tone as Torrey’s spiritual development is from the late 1800s. The book was written and in circulation just after the U.S. Civil War (1861–1865) but before World war I (1914–1918) and II (1939–1945). While How to Pray was written after the industrial revolution between about 1820 through 1840, Western civilization slid into decades of moral descent while humanity underwent the historical “development” of modernity beginning about 1910. After modernism peaked in the 1960s, U.S. cultural and sexual revolutions gave a further pretext for postmodern worldviews to shape societies, governments, academia, economies, and liberalism.

Before some evangelical denominations from liberal traditions sank into moral relativism and decay through their participation in postmodern society’s interests, it surrendered biblical imperatives concerning racial, social, and economic justice with warnings about moral and sexual ethics contrary to centuries of Scriptural interpretation according to the intent of Old and New Testament writers. As R.A. Torrey’s written views come from this era, he objected to the pressures of modernity upon seminaries and the church. And while he didn’t ascribe to a single denomination,¹ he was a proponent of Keswick theology,² which was a partition of theological persuasion aside from the “Arminian strain of Wesleyan thought” and unlike Methodist leaders who dominated the Holiness Movement. As Keswick theology was more within the Calvinist tradition,³ Torrey was a congregationalist in alignment with presbyterian polity. Torrey routinely informed his audiences that he was ‘Episcopresbygationalaptist!‘

From the 19^th century to today, the historical presence of Wesleyan thought, and feminist ideology among Methodist traditions of evangelicalism had a significant bearing on the development of Western Protestantism. In contrast to the social and ecclesial priorities of Methodist interests concerning capitulations to modernity, R.A. Torrey was a revivalist and anti-modernist. He was one of the founders of the fundamentalist movement⁴ before broader evangelicalism superseded it to import various denominations with hidden egalitarian leanings to assert progressive “unity” and soften the edge of biblical adherence of believers to Scriptural faith and practice within modern society. “Fundamentalism” had become a pariah and a pejorative within Western Christianity, just as “Protestantism” was to Catholicism for different reasons. Today, the readership of R.A. Torrey’s How to Pray is situated within evangelicalism that is largely spiritually weak, biblically illiterate to a significant extent, and either in denial or uninformed concerning what Christ expects of His church.

As indicated before, this title, How to Pray, is accompanied by further reading among other faith traditions. Namely, these additional titles shall be reviewed and cited among various others to balance how I begin with Torrey’s work. Eastern Orthodox and Puritan writings on prayer shall also get due attention, but these are well-known with favorably earned reputations.

The Complete Works of E.M. Bounds
by E.M. Bounds – The Essentials of Prayer, The Necessity of Prayer, The Possibilities of Prayer, Power through Prayer, Prayer and Praying Men, Purpose in Prayer, The Reality of Prayer, The Weapon of Prayer
An Exposition on Prayer in the Bible
by Dr. James Rosscup – Volumes 1 through 4, Expositions from Genesis to Revelation
Fire Within
by Dr. Thomas Dubay – St. Teresa of Avila, St. John of the Cross, and the Gospel – on Prayer

R.A. Torrey’s book on prayer spans 12 chapters concerning methods of communication with God involving preparation, state of being, and intentionality. As Christ Jesus taught His disciples how to pray (Luke 11:2-4), He provides a model to follow (Matt 6:5-15). Moreover, he gave guidelines about what not to do during prayer. It is His prayer that sets the New Covenant baseline model for prayer, but there are numerous prayers throughout Scripture that serve as examples. Prayers offered to YHWH originate from the patriarchs and extend to kings, priests, prophets, poets, saints, and puritans throughout the centuries. God heard the prayers we read in Scripture, and believing readers are inspired and motivated to understand their meaning to pray familiarly as models for us to aspire. The prayer of God incarnate to God the Father is the pedagogical model we witness in Scripture, but we also have Jesus’ prayer within the gospels to learn much from. For example, the prayer through John 17 is for all people to marvel at its substance and beauty as the LORD’s relationship to the Father is of enormous spiritual significance.

Yet during the course of daily life, as a disciple asked Jesus how to pray, these were His words for us today.

The Lord’s Prayer

And he said unto them, When ye pray, say,
Our Father which art in heaven,
Hallowed be thy name.
Thy kingdom come.
Thy will be done, as in heaven, so in earth.
Give us day by day our daily bread.
And forgive us our sins; for we also forgive every one that is indebted to us.
And lead us not into temptation; but deliver us from evil.

– Luke 11:2-3 KJV

In The Dark Hallway of Prayerlessness

The editor of this book, Dr. Rosalie de Rosset, wrote an utterly delightful introduction to Torrey’s little book on prayer, How to Pray. Dr. Rosset is a retired Literature, English, and Homiletics professor at Moody Bible Institute. She earned an M.A. in English from Northeastern Illinois University, M.Div. from Trinity Evangelical Divinity School and a Ph.D. in Language, Literacy, and Rhetoric from The University of Illinois at Chicago. Her summary of Dr. Torrey’s life work was also recounted with her own experiences and affections about prayer that draw the reader into the book with a fresh and open perspective. As prayer is a blessing and privilege, she reminds us that the discipline of it is a source of reward that suggests peace, joy, rest, and contentment. She read numerous books on prayer, both old and new, and she served as a wonderful and fitting editor of this book by R.A. Torrey. Her passing through the dark hallway of prayerlessness was written touchingly by her reading and heartful presentation of this little prayer book. A book that should inspire anyone who may want to draw close to God and speak.

The Importance of Prayer

As Torrey begins his book, he answers the questions about why prayer is essential. He specifically wrote that prayer must be constant, persistent, sleepless, overcoming, and necessary. There were eleven reasons Torrey listed to explain why prayer carries such an urgency to remain disciplined and continuously about it.

There is a devil -An evil influence that seeks to ensnare believers who relax in prayer.
Prayer is God’s appointed way of obtaining things, and the great secret of all lack in our experience, in our life and in our work is neglect of prayer.
Men whom God set forth as a pattern of what He expected Christians to be—the apostles —regarded prayer as the most important business of their lives (Rom 1:9, Eph 1:15-16, Col 1:9, 1 Thess 3:10, 2 Tim 1:3).
Prayer occupied a very prominent place and played a very important part in the earthly life of our Lord (Mark 1:35 Luke 6:12).

A startling quote from this section of the book: “a man or woman who does not spend much time in prayer cannot properly be called a follower of Jesus Christ.”⁵
Prayer that seems if possible even more forcible than this, namely, praying is the most important part of the present ministry of our risen Lord (Rom. 8:34, Heb. 7:25).
Prayer is the means that God has appointed for our receiving mercy, and obtaining grace to help in time of need (Luke 11:8, Heb. 4:14-16).
Prayer in the name of Jesus Christ is the way Jesus Christ Himself has appointed for His disciples to obtain fullness of joy (Ps. 16:11, John 16:24).
With thanksgiving, every care, anxiety, and need of life is the means that God has appointed for our obtaining freedom from all anxiety, and the peace of God which passes all understanding (Phil 4:6-7).
Prayer is the method that God Himself has appointed for our obtaining the Holy Spirit (Luke 11:13).
Prayer is the means that Christ has appointed whereby our hearts shall not become overcharged with surfeiting and drunkenness and cares of this life, and so the day of Christ’s return come upon us suddenly as a snare (Luke 21:34-36, Acts 4:31, Acts 8:15, Eph. 6:18).
Prayer accomplishes the following:
a. Prayer promotes our spiritual growth as almost nothing else, indeed as nothing else but Bible study; and true prayer and true Bible study go hand in hand.
b. Prayer brings power into our work.
c. Prayer avails for the conversion of others.
d. Prayer brings blessings to the church.

Torrey doesn’t offer scriptural support on this last point (11).

Praying to God

Torrey makes the point that the recipient of prayer is God and that it is necessary to offer prayer to Him constantly. However, he begins by noting that this continuous prayer is also about how to pray with power. To at least infer that the length and intensity by which prayer is offered have a bearing on the recipient when two or more believers gather together in prayer. He elaborates further on three areas of interest.

In the twelfth chapter of the Acts of the Apostles, we have the record of a prayer that prevailed with God and brought to pass great results (Acts 12:5).
The second secret of effective praying is found in the same verse, in the words without ceasing. Rendered as “earnest” in other translations, it carries the tone of a serious, persevering, eager, fervent, and constant heart and intent.
A third secret of right praying is also found in this same verse, Acts 12:5. It appears in the three words “of the church”; there is a special blessing as Torrey interprets Matthew 18:19. Translated quote of Christ Jesus: “If two of you shall agree on earth as touching anything that they shall ask, it shall be done for them of my Father which is in heaven.”

Note: The word “touching” (προσψαύω) rendered by the KJV, ASV, or ERV doesn’t appear in early manuscripts [4th-century Alexandria (Sinaiticus majuscule)].

The duration and intensity of group prayer appear to have a bearing on how effective prayer is in terms of power. Still, it must be said that God is not beholden to group pressure or the substance of a group’s prayer (and its persistence or intensity) to get what’s requested, even if motives are pure. God’s promises are true, and He fulfills them as recorded within Scripture; however, as He does fulfill His promises, it is by His will and sovereign intent about how He does that.

Obeying and Praying

The book comes to a critical point regarding the relationship between prayer and obedience. Torrey brings the reader’s attention to 1 John 3:22, where the biblical author makes clear a correlation between what we ask and receive to doing what He instructs and what pleases him. In this context, the term “because” is set as a conjunction, not to indicate a cause-and-effect relationship between an antecedent and result but a correlation between obedience, loyalty, and love with answered prayer.

“Beloved, if our heart does not condemn us, we have confidence before God; and whatever we ask we receive from him, because we keep his commandments and do what pleases him.” – 1 John 3:22

Torrey stresses the point that it is necessary to do what pleases God, not only that which constitutes simple obedience according to His Word through Scripture. The spirit of what pleases God in a believer’s faith and practice is a matter of principle according to what the Spirit produces as fruit (Galatians 5:22). Moreover, an internal conviction of the Holy Spirit that serves as a source of discernment shall be sought and honored to please God as well.

Praying in the Name of Christ and According to the Will of God

Consistent with each chapter of this book on prayer, Torrey structures his points in an ordered and numbered fashion. Previous chapters pertain to the reasons for prayer, prayer directed to God individually or in the corporate gathering of believers, and the necessity of obedience with a right heart of love for God. In this way, the believer is advised to pray in the name of Christ Jesus, as the name of Christ has power with God. God the Father is well pleased with Jesus Christ. Christ Jesus, the Great Advocate of believers, is heard by God the Father.

It was a wonderful word about prayer that Jesus spoke to His disciples on the night before His crucifixion, “Whatsoever ye shall ask in My name, that will I do, that the Father may be glorified in the Son. If ye shall ask anything in My name, I will do it.”
Great light is thrown upon the subject “How to Pray” by 1 John 5:14-15: “And this is the boldness which we have toward Him, that if we ask anything according to His Will, He heareth us: and if we know that He heareth us whatsoever we ask, we know that we have the petitions which we have asked of Him.”

To further understand the will of God either by general or special revelation from Him, Torrey draws the reader’s attention to Scripture as the Word of God (Luke 11:13, James 1:5) and by the help of the Holy Spirit. To quote Torrey’s emphasis on God’s word to discern the Lord’s will, he wrote the following:

“To study the Word to find what God’s will is as revealed there in the promises, and then simply take these promises and spread them out before God in prayer with the absolutely unwavering expectation that He will do what He has promised in His Word.”⁶

Apostle Paul wrote to the church at Rome (Rom. 8:26-27) concerning the help from the Holy Spirit as He intercedes for us. He prays for the saints according to the will of God. As the Holy Spirit intercedes for us, Torrey also draws our attention to the confidence we have in Christ, as made clear in 1 John 5:14-15. Furthermore, this love banishes self-condemnation, resulting in confidence in every believer’s relationship with God.⁷

Praying in the Spirit

Torrey references two passages that call attention to prayer in the Spirit. Ephesians 6:18 and Jude 20 explicitly refer to “praying in the Spirit” to indicate a person’s state of being while communicating before God. The Holy Spirit helps believers in Christ before the Father (John 14:16-17) through personal weakness (i.e., “the Spirit helpeth our infirmity” according to Romans 8:26). Torrey says explicitly that the Holy Spirit teaches us how to pray.⁸ And that “true prayer is prayer in the Spirit; that is, the prayer the Spirit inspires and directs.” Torrey makes this point about the authenticity of prayer because of a concern over praying for the right things in the right way. Where to accompany joy and power, prayer in the Spirit is a necessity. However, his accurate observations from authoritative Scripture appear to be about requests, supplications, or petitions and not explicitly about confession, thanksgiving, or adoration. These further categories of prayer involve praying in the Spirit yet are unaddressed in this chapter.

Over and over again in what has already been said, we have seen our dependence upon the Holy Spirit in prayer.
If we are to pray with power we must pray with faith.

As Torrey makes Scripturally sound points about praying in the Spirit, he also covers the point about praying with faith. Jesus informs His followers that belief is necessary for effective prayer (Mark 11:24), and Torrey includes faith or belief as a component of prayer that requires due attention. Together, prayer in the Spirit and prayer in faith work as a methodology or condition about communication with God that bears undeniable merit as the points are grounded in Scripture, and the teachings of Christ are clear and unambiguous in this area. However, it is essential to recognize that the wider context of Christ’s teachings extends to the scope and the state of the heart of prayer. Carefully observing the gospel witness accounts of prayer serve as a model for prayer, yet what Jesus further said about prayer in the context of faith and reconciliation carries enormous weight.

And Jesus answered them, “Have faith in God. Truly, I say to you, whoever says to this mountain, ‘Be taken up and thrown into the sea,’ and does not doubt in his heart, but believes that what he says will come to pass, it will be done for him. Therefore I tell you, whatever you ask in prayer, believe that you have received it, and it will be yours. And whenever you stand praying, forgive, if you have anything against anyone, so that your Father also who is in heaven may forgive you your trespasses.” – Mark 11:22-25

Later in the book (chapter 9), Torrey lists various hindrances to prayer. Reconciliation is one of them (Mark 11:25). However, this prayer in faith is spiritually affected by the interpersonal status of relationships we have among believers and people in general, where resentments, grudges, and attitudes of unforgiveness remain held against those who have offended. Faith, as a required state of mental and spiritual belief in the absence of doubt, represents a stable mind confident of who God is and what He can do (James 1:5-6).

It is reasonable to ask where faith comes from where there is no faith and faith is expected for prayer. Torrey points to Scripture as the origination and development of faith as supported by Romans 10:17. More specifically, the “word of Christ” produces faith where it becomes further possible to pray in the Spirit in a growing way among the spiritual lives of believers. As people read or intake the words of Christ, faith is developed to support prayer for various purposes, as outlined in chapter one of this book. It is yet unwise to let it go unrecognized that faith is a gift (Ephesians 2:8). At the same time, faithfulness is a fruit of the Spirit (Galatians 5:22). This faith is “a confident trust and reliance upon Christ Jesus and is the only means by which one can obtain salvation.”⁹ The passage in Ephesians 2:8, “For by grace you have been saved through faith. And this is not your own doing; it is the gift of God,” captures the gift’s essence to include grace and faith as one gift together. There is providence and sovereignty at work in the lives of believers in this area of confidence and belief involving faith given to those who would decide to trust Christ Jesus.

In contrast to prayer in the Spirit and by faith, recited prayers and benedictions stand alongside the examples given in Scripture and what Torrey wrote about in this book. Torrey doesn’t touch upon this form of devotion expressed as prayer, but the presence of it in the lives of believers is undeniable. Psalms and prayers are sung and read from prepared materials from Scripture, the Church, Spirit-indwelt individuals, institutions, and the magisterium, where there are true and important spiritual facts and principles that contribute to the development of personal and public faith. Furthermore, fellowship and outreach have an additional effect on the development of faith as believers acknowledge every good thing they have in Christ Jesus (Philemon 1:6). A growing, effective and powerful prayer life rests upon faith as it is formed through the Holy Spirit, Scripture, fellowship among believers, and outreach toward society as belief and spiritual truth is proclaimed. There are benedictions, both written and spoken in person and written in the Word, that have significant biblical and theological meanings. More specifically, the Aaronic and apostolic benedictions commonly appear in ceremonial, worship, and instructional settings directed to YHWH God for His glory and the edification of the saints (Num 6:24-26, Rom 15:13, 2 Cor 13:14, Heb 13:20-21).¹⁰

Prayers among believers from structured writings offer a consistent and formatted use of terms, phrases, and recited truths directed inward, just as they are in prayers of sincere reflection and outward expression of petitions. Aside from confessional documents that summarize doctrines, prayer books serve as acknowledgments, devotional, and liturgical aids that help frame spiritual thought and practice. Prayer books appear among theological traditions and denominations that are recited by millions of people and across generations. The Common Book of Prayer is an example of verbiage prescribed and applied by faithful followers of Christ who follow methods of spoken words uttered and thoughts formed to communicate to God about events, instruction, devotion, and worship as a matter of recited effort. Either as empty words outward or to the inward life of the mind. Also, they are as heartfelt words claimed and recited, just as benedictions are to convey meaning and personal or corporate interest within the Church.

Prayer in the Spirit and by faith as an attitude of the softened heart given by God to commune with Him and others is an authentic mode of prayer that substantiates how prayer is formed. Prayers both as free-form thoughts to speak and as read and recited with a warmth of conviction to yield a personal heart of faith and fellowship in the Spirit. Prayers in the Spirit and by faith are not auto-repeated (vain repetitions) empty words that Christ taught against (Matt 6:7) but appropriated words that speak through us and for us by the Spirit as an expression of faith. Singing the Psalms, reciting the Lord’s prayer, and repeating the Aaronic and apostolic benedictions are just a few examples.

Always Praying and Not Fainting

In this section (chapter 6), Torrey wrote about persistence and stamina in prayer. Torrey draws upon the parables of Christ directly from passages within the gospel of Luke. Among two parables, Jesus spoke to His followers about the necessity of continuous prayer as a matter of persistence and great faith. As God is pleased by the faith of His people, it can take continued attention from a believer to press in prayer what is desired to please Him, worship Him, serve Him, and love others through service. Beginning with Luke 11:5-13, Jesus invited understanding about what it meant to ask, seek, and knock, as necessary to receive in faith what was sought. People who appear before God in prayer have, at times, a need to remain persistent as an expression of faith where their importunity demonstrates the sincerity and urgency of petitions. This importunity (Luke 11:8) is a lack of sensitivity about what is proper, and it is a carelessness about the opinion of others. It is a shameless immodesty without concern for propriety or one’s own dignity, and it ignores convention.¹¹ In a manner of speaking, it is shameless persistence.

The example given to us about this importunity is from the Syro-Phœnician (Canaanite) woman who appeared before Jesus in desperation concerning her daughter, who was oppressed by a demon (Matt 15:21-28). While Jesus was initially unresponsive to her and then declined her request for help, she remained persistent with Him in her pleas for help. As Jesus’s disciples were disturbed about her manner of approach and wanted her sent away, her request was heard even after Jesus reasoned that she was not entitled to “the children’s bread.” Jesus’ made the point that His ministry wasn’t for the Gentiles, who were foreign to the work of the Messiah at the time. Jesus’ use of the term “dogs” was correlated to Gentile peoples (Matt 1:26), while the lost people of Israel were “sheep” (Matt 1:24). The sheep were lost, and the dogs were not entitled or eligible as they were not of the house of Israel. While she knew she was an outsider, her persistence prevailed as she confessed and proclaimed Him as Lord and Master. Jesus granted her prayer, and He acknowledged her dignity as a woman who would see her daughter delivered while her faith was made evident before God and the lost sheep of Israel.

An important takeaway in this parable of the Canaanite woman is the recognition that persistence in prayer shows “great faith” that pleases God immensely. We are reminded that without faith, it is impossible to please God (Heb 11:6), and persistence in prayer is a way to exercise faith to gain what is sought, but more importantly, to please God by seeking Him continually and, when necessary, with importunity.

Abiding in Christ

When considering what it means to abide in Christ, it is easy to miss how this imperative relates to prayer. Apostle wrote to the church what he witnessed of Christ’s teaching, “If ye abide in Me, and My words abide in you, ye shall ask what ye will, and it shall be done unto you” (John 15:7). What Jesus spoke is a conditional proposition. That is, specifically, “if you abide in Me” and “My words abide in you” results in an outcome involving prayer that pleases God (by inference from the point above). Abiding in Christ is inseparable from abiding in His words. It is impossible to abide in Christ without dwelling upon what He said. And by what was recorded in Scripture to state what He said. What Christ spoke and what the biblical writers convey to generations and all nationalities reach individuals who would appear before God in prayer with the grace and mercy to be heard. Torrey further parses the verse between phrases for readers to understand the conditions for answered prayer.

The first condition is, “If ye abide in Me.”
But there is another condition stated in this verse, though it is really involved in the first: “And My words abide in you.”

The words of Christ settled within and richly observed afresh in the hearts and minds of believers yield a disposition of “abiding in Christ.” It isn’t enough to become familiar with God’s Word and the words of Christ by reading the Bible once or less than infrequently and expect to be heard in prayer. It is necessary to feed upon the word. Dwelling in the Word, living in the Word, and spiritually washing oneself in the word bring sanctification (John 17:17) as a means of worship in spirit and truth. Prayers thought and spoken are in the absence of neglect of the Word for petitions to be heard, accepted, and answered insofar as God chooses.

Torrey makes a further point that is quite astonishing. He asserted, “The Holy Spirit works His prayers in us through the Word, and neglect of the Word makes praying in the Holy Spirit an impossibility” (Rom 8:26-27). In contrast to empty ritualistic words uttered by a person in dry prayer and worship, the Spirit works with believers’ meditations upon God’s Word. And by this assertion of Christ, “if you abide in Me, and My words abide in you,” we understand and sit upon the ground of faith for the Spirit to intercede before God the Father on our behalf. God answers the prayers He inspires by His Word indwelt within believers who live by faith.

Of significant interest as a counter-weight to Torrey’s assertion here, consider the parable of the Pharisee and the Tax Collector (Luke 18:12-14). Notice the contrast between the religious leader immersed in the Torah as Old Covenant Scripture as compared to the tax collector, an adversary of the Jewish people, who lifted his eyes and pleaded in desperation, “God, have mercy on me, a sinner!” That man in Christ’s parable was heard and went away justified, even as an illustration of spiritual truth, the LORD hears those who reach out to Him in faith. To further reinforce this point, consider the thief on the cross executed alongside Jesus, “Lord, remember me when you enter into your Kingdom” (Luke 23:42). God incarnate heard the man’s petition and, by His mercy, gave him the grace to die in peace assured of God’s presence to come. There isn’t a contradiction here about what Jesus teaches us about prayers heard and answered. Torrey highlights that those in a relationship with Jesus are expected to abide in His words as necessary for His people to be heard.

Praying with Thanksgiving

In addition to what apostle Paul wrote about thanksgiving during the course of prayer (Phil 4:6-7), Jesus spoke of gratitude beforehand during His ministry. Torrey points out, “God is deeply grieved by the thanklessness and ingratitude of which many of us are guilty.” He telegraphs Jesus’ experience to people today according to the healing of the ten lepers (Luke 17:11-19) at a village between Samaria and Galilee. As the gospel record makes clear, Jesus sent them on their way to present themselves to priests, and as they went, they were healed. As glorious as this miraculous event was, one Samaritan returned to praise God in gratitude to Jesus. Ten percent of the people who were obedient to present themselves to the priests returned to thank Jesus for the cleansing. They asked for help, “Jesus, Master, have mercy on us” (Luke 17:13), and their request was answered with a miracle Jesus performed. One out of ten returned in gratitude. All could have returned to praise God and glorify Him with thanksgiving to Christ and then go to the priests as instructed. One might surmise that the Samaritan did return to Christ Jesus as the high priest in a spiritual sense because He gave the cleansed leper freedom to “Rise and go your way; your faith has made you well” (c.f. Mark 10:52). In any case, the Samaritan’s attitude was of praise to express authentic, heartfelt gratitude by faith that pleased God.

While Apostle Paul stressed the necessity of thanksgiving during prayer to the church at Philippi (Phil 4:6-7), he also wrote to the church as Thessalonica, “in everything give thanks” (1 Thess 5:18). It is in these passages that we recognize that relevant, valid, and necessary methods of prayer extend beyond supplication, intercession, and petition. And even with the Lord’s model, prayer is recorded in Matthew 6:5-15 where there isn’t a specific meaning of terms to indicate a heart or words spoken of gratitude. Prayer with meaning from believers by faith includes thanksgiving as fitting the occasion for prayer. However, thanksgiving is never neglected.

Hindrances to Prayer

There are several hindrances to prayer that Torrey wrote about over 120 years ago. Taken together, they constitute selfish motives [(1) James 4:3], personal sin [(2) Isa 59:1-2], idolatry [(3) Ezek 14:3], neglect of the poor [(4) Prov 21:13], unforgiveness [(5) Mark 11:25], spousal dishonor [(6) 1 Pet 3:7], and doubt or disbelief [(7) James 1:5-7]. The following list is what Torrey offers as hindrances. While Torrey cites scripture from the English Revised Version (ERV), the English Standard Version (ESV) translation is substituted here for improved readability.

The first hindrance to prayer we will find in James 4:3 (ESV): “You ask and do not receive, because you ask wrongly, to spend it on your passions.”
The second hindrance to prayer we find in Is. 59:1-2 (ESV): “Behold, the LORD’s hand is not shortened, that it cannot save, or his ear dull, that it cannot hear; but your iniquities have made a separation between you and your God, and your sins have hidden his face from you so that he does not hear.”
The third hindrance to prayer is found in Ezek. 14:3 (ESV): “Son of man, these men have taken their idols into their hearts, and set the stumbling block of their iniquity before their faces. Should I indeed let myself be consulted by them?” Idols in the heart cause God to refuse to listen to our prayers.
The fourth hindrance to prayer is found in Prov. 21:13 (ESV): “Whoever closes his ear to the cry of the poor will himself call out and not be answered.”
The fifth hindrance to prayer is found in Mark 11:25 (ESV): “And whenever you stand praying, forgive, if you have anything against anyone, so that your Father also who is in heaven may forgive you your trespasses.”
The sixth hindrance to prayer is found in 1 Peter 3:7 (ESV): “Likewise, husbands, live with your wives in an understanding way, showing honor to the woman as the weaker vessel, since they are heirs with you1 of the grace of life, so that your prayers may not be hindered.” Here we are plainly told that a wrong relation between husband and wife is a hindrance to prayer.
The seventh hindrance to prayer is found in James 1:5–7 (ESV): “If any of you lacks wisdom, let him ask God, who gives generously to all without reproach, and it will be given him. But let him ask in faith, with no doubting, for the one who doubts is like a wave of the sea that is driven and tossed by the wind. For that person must not suppose that he will receive anything from the Lord;” Prayers are hindered by unbelief.

Torrey titles chapter nine, “Hindrances to Prayer.” However, when reading the verse references carefully, Torrey accurately proves from Scripture what conditions negatively affect prayer in believers’ lives. However, there doesn’t appear to be room for reading some of these verses as impediments per se as compared to prayers outright obstructed for various reasons. Apostle Peter applied the term “hindered” (ἐγκόπτεσθαι) in 1 Peter 3:7 concerning prayer impediments due to spousal dishonor, whereas that same term doesn’t appear among the other verses where Torrey makes his points about prayers going unheard or unanswered. However, there isn’t another term among these concerns that indicates “hindrance” with a wider semantic range of understanding. The term “hindrance” Torrey uses here indicates the presence of something that interferes, delays, or damages prayers accepted and heard. Compared to the loosely applied word “hindrance,” which infers a strained reach in prayer as opposed to a sense of obstruction or obstacle that altogether prevents the hearing and answering of prayers as an apparent interpretation according to the intent of the biblical authors. There is a big difference between hindered and blocked prayers, and both situations appear as biblical truths from the translations we read.

When to Pray

While not explicitly made evident, the “when” question is answered in terms of chronology, durations, intervals, and events. In this sense, Torrey indicates the circumstances in which it is appropriate and necessary to pray. He rightfully draws upon Christ’s life and ministry examples to answer questions about “when to pray.” As this classic book is entitled “How to Pray,” this chapter offers thoughts about “When to Pray.” In a limited way, Torrey’s various chapters answer questions about when, where, how, why, and what to pray. The verse passages Torrey quoted here are kept in the ERV.

In the 1st chapter of Mark, the 35th verse, we read, “And in the morning, rising up a great while before day, He went out, and departed into a solitary place, and there prayed.” See Mark 1:35 ESV as a comparison.
In the 6th chapter of Luke in the 12th verse, we get further light upon the right time to pray. We read, “And it came to pass in those days, that He went out into a mountain to pray, and continued all night in prayer to God.” See Luke 6:12 ESV as a comparison.
Jesus Christ prayed before all the great crises in His earthly life. (Luke 6:12, 13; Luke 9:18, 21, 22; Luke 3:21, 22; Mark 1:35–38; Luke 22:39–46)
Christ prayed not only before the great events and victories of His life, but He also prayed after its great achievements and important crises. (Matt 14:23, John 6:15).
Jesus Christ gave a special time to prayer when life was unusually busy. He would withdraw at such a time from the multitudes that thronged about Him, and go into the wilderness and pray. For example, we read in Luke 5:15-16 (ERV), “But so much the more went abroad the report concerning Him: and great multitudes came together to hear, and to be healed of their infirmities. But He withdrew Himself in the deserts and prayed.” (Mark 3:20, 6:31, 33, 46)
Jesus Christ prayed before the great temptations of His life. (Mark 26:36)
In 1 Thess. 5:17 we read, “Pray without ceasing,” and in Eph. 6:18 (ERV), “praying at all seasons.” In the life of the mind, prayers thought and offered should accompany spoken prayers out loud. As a constant walk in communication with God, prayer should be an ever-present state or presence before God with thanksgiving, adoration, confession, and supplication.

General Revival and Its Preparatory Prayer

The final two chapters of Torrey’s book are about his views concerning a pressing need for spiritual revivals during a historical period where such events were more culturally recognized than the old-time thought of revival to modern sensibilities today. From a biblical perspective, spiritual renewal is a theologically relevant matter of interest. The sapiential value of renewal, where people become spiritually restored and reoriented toward a rightful life of faith and practice, there is repentance and a prevailing heart’s desire to return to God and remain with Him.

Torrey was an independent congregationalist educator committed to revival events with a reputation for bringing spiritual renewal to thousands of people. Known for his organizational capabilities, Torrey was an influential Christian leader in the late 1800s and early 1900s who wrote over 40 books and reminded Protestants about the fundamentals of the faith. His contributions to the Kingdom in this little book about prayer now also comes at a time today when his message and guidance are urgently needed.

Citations

___________________
¹John Calvin, Institutes of the Christian Religion & 2, ed. John T. McNeill, trans. Ford Lewis Battles, vol. 1, The Library of Christian Classics (Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 2011), 926.
²Jack W. Hayford and S. David Moore, The Charismatic Century: The Enduring Impact of the Azusa Street Revival (New York City, NY: FaithWords, 2009).
³Daniel G. Reid et al., Dictionary of Christianity in America (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1990).
⁴W. V. Trollinger, Jr, “Torrey, Reuben Archer,” ed. Timothy Larsen et al., Biographical Dictionary of Evangelicals (Leicester, England; Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2003), 675.
⁵St Augustine et al., Moody Classics Complete Set: Includes 18 Classics of the Faith in a Single Volume (Chicago, IL: Moody Publishers, 2010).
⁶Reuben Archer Torrey, How to Pray (Chicago; New York: Fleming H. Revell company, 1900), 55.
⁷John F. MacArthur Jr., The MacArthur Study Bible: New American Standard Bible. (Nashville, TN: Thomas Nelson Publishers, 2006), 1 Jn 3:21.
⁸Ibid. Torrey, 58.
⁹Crossway Bibles, The ESV Study Bible (Wheaton, IL: Crossway Bibles, 2008), 2265.
¹⁰Leland Ryken et al., Dictionary of Biblical Imagery (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2000), 87.
¹¹William Arndt et al., A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000), 63.

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Introduction

Christian Worldview

Humanist Worldview

Philosophical Alignment

Men Without Chests

The Way

The Abolition of Man

Summary

Introduction

Book I

Book II

Book III

Book IV

Introduction

Review – Part I

Review – Part II

Pilgrims’ Locations

INTRODUCTION

BOOK I – Childhood

Book I Synopsis

BOOK II – Teen Years

Book II Synopsis

BOOK III – Teen Years and Early Adulthood

Book III Synopsis

BOOK IV – Early Adult Years

Book IV Synopsis

BOOK V – Rome, Milan, and Manichaeism

Book V Synopsis

BOOK VI – Milan

Book VI Synopsis

BOOK VII – Neoplatonism

Book VII Synopsis

BOOK VIII – Conversion to Christianity

Book VIII Synopsis

BOOK IX – Baptism and Death of Augustine’s Mother

Book IX Synopsis

BOOK X- Theology of Memory, Nature of Prayer, Self Examination

Book X Synopsis

BOOK XI – Theological Inquiry on Time and Creation

Book XI Synopsis

BOOK XII – Theology of Creation, Scripture, and Tradition

Book XII Synopsis

BOOK XIII – Theology of Creation, Trinity, and Spiritual Formation

Book XIII Synopsis

Citations

Background

The Lord’s Prayer

In The Dark Hallway of Prayerlessness

The Importance of Prayer

Praying to God

Obeying and Praying

Praying in the Name of Christ and According to the Will of God

Praying in the Spirit

Always Praying and Not Fainting

Abiding in Christ

Praying with Thanksgiving

Hindrances to Prayer

When to Pray

General Revival and Its Preparatory Prayer

Citations

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